IGCSE Geography

Geography IGCSE

• Population and Settlement
• The natural environment
• Economic development

Population and Settlement

• 1.1 population dynamics
• 1.2 migration
• 1.3 population structure
• 1.4 population density and distribution
• 1.5 settlement and service provision
• 1.6 urban settlement
• 1.7 urbanisation

1.1 population dynamics

• Describe and give reasons for the rapid
• increase in the world’s population
• Show an understanding of over-population and
• under-population
• Understand the main causes of a change in
• population size
• Give reasons for contrasting rates of natural
• population change
• Describe and evaluate population policies
• Causes and consequences of over-population
• and under-population
• How birth rate, death rate and migration
• contribute to the population of a country
• increasing or declining - Chinas one child policy
• Impacts of social, economic and other factors
• (including government policies, HIV/AIDS) on birth and death rates - Botswana
• A country which is over-populated - Bangladesh
• A country which is under-populated - Australia
• A country with a high rate of natural population growth - Nigeria
• A country with a low rate of population growth (or population decline) - Russia

Key terms

• birth rate; the number of birth per 1000 people per year
• death rate; the number of deaths per 1000 people per year
• natural increase; when the birth rate is larger than the death rate
• natural decrease; when the death rate is larger than the birth rate
• infant mortality rate; the number of babies who die before their first year per 100 live births
• replacement level; when you have the same amount of births as deaths
• peak child; in 2000 there were 2 billion children in the world
• extreme poverty; the line between the poorest and the poor (just a little more than $1)
• emancipated; freed from custom or tradition
• economic asset; when children is seen as an economic asset- working from early age
• economic burden; when you use money on children- clothes, food, education
• fertility rate; number of babies born per women

Key terms

• birth rate - death rate = population growth
• sparsely populated; when the population is spread out per km2
• densely populated; when the population is in a tight space per km2
• overpopulated; when there are more people than recourses available
• underpopulated; when there are more resources than people
• pro-natalist; encourage people to have babies
• anti-natalist; against people having babies
• incentives; prizes
• disincentive; fines, punishments

population

• reasons for high death rate
• food scarcity: with less food people are more likely to starve to death
• high diseases level: with high levels of diseases its less likely there is a cure
• reasons for low death rate
• access to health care: with access to health care the high level of diseases could be cured
• reasons for high birth rate
• religious value are less important: which means they can have sex before marriage
• reasons for low birth rate
• lots of young children die: this means they could not reproduce, thus creating the next generation
• women pursue careers: more women go to work instead of becoming a stay at home mom

the demographic transition model

• 
• Bildunterschrift: demographic transition model

population pyramids

• population pyramid; shows the population by categorising them into categories (for example age)
• concave - dipping inwards.
• - shows a rapid, increasing population growth
• convex - dipping outwards
• - shows a decreasing population growth
• the bottom of the pyramid is called a base
• the top of the pyramid is called the apex
• 
• Bildunterschrift: population pyramid; age

stages 1 and 2 of population pyramids

• 
• stage 1. birth rates are very high as people have children to help them work the land as well as look after their parents when they turn old. No contraception is used. Death rate is very high because of high level of diseases and no medical treatment, this means young children die. TRADITIONAL TRIBES
• stage 2. birth rate remains high because it is traditional to have large families. Death rate begins to drop because go improvements in the health care system and vaccines. also there is a improvement in quality and quantity of food and water supply. AFGHANISTAN
• Bildunterschrift: diffrent stages of population pyramids

stage 3 and 4 of population pyramids

• 
• stage 3. birth rates now level off at a low level as education and birth control programs become more available, and tradition of large families are lost. children becomes an economic burden. BRAZIL
• stage 4. birth now begins to fall because people are beginning to become more educated, birth control programs, more children survives. Death rate continues to fall then levels off as improvements in health care improve as well as water supply. GERMANY
• Bildunterschrift: diffrent stages of population pyramids

population explotion

• why has the population grown?
• the farmers started to produce more food which could feed more people
• better child survival because there has been an improvement in the health care system
• there are more women in the world today, which can produce more children
• what problems can overpopulation cause?
• traffic, the more people there is the move vehicles there are on the streets
• pollution as there as more people the amount of pollution increases as there is a higher demand for fuel
• high crime rate
• not enough health care and education for everyone
• lack of employment
• lack of housing
• food scarcity
• solution?
• educate people about birth control and contraception

under population

• why do people choose to have less children?
• children are seen as an economic burden
• people are more educated on birth control
• government restriction (chinas one child policy)
• people concentration on careers
• later marriages
• what problems can this cause
• shortage of workers
• difficult to defend the country
• economic decline
• need to raise taxed
• ageing population
• solution
• offer incentives based on the amount of children people have (tax reduction, reduction in school fee)

population growth in different rates

• why do population grow in different rates?
• education and availability about contreception
• quality of health care
• children - economic asset or burden
• availability of resources
• develop or developing country
• migration rate
• issues within the country (war, disease)
• population policies
• 5 top country affected by HIV
• Botswana
• Lesotho
• South Africa
• Zimbabwe
• HIV has affected the population. If you look at the population pyramid you can see the infant mortality rate has fallen for ex. Botswana, because the unavailability of medical care children are dying at a younger age.

ageing population

• causes;
• better diets
• improvement in health care
• population vaccines against deadly diseases
• effects;
• bigger burden on the economically active population
• people have to work more
• charges may be made for health care

1.2 Migration

• Explain and give reasons for population
• migration
• Demonstrate an understanding of the
• impacts of migration
• Internal movements such as rural-urban
• migration, as well as international migrations,
• both voluntary and involuntary
• Positive and negative impacts should be
• considered, on the destination and origin of the
• migrants, and the migrants themselves
• international migration - Mexico to USA

Key terms

• migration; the movement of people
• emigrants; people leaving their country
• immigrants; people who are migrating into a country
• migration balance; people migrating in - people migrate out
• temporary migration
• seasonal migration
• voluntary migration
• daily migration
• force migration
• push factors
• pull factors
• Interventing obstacles

1.3 Population Structure

• Identify and give reasons for and implications
• of different types of population structure
• Age/sex pyramids of countries at different
• levels of economic development
• a country with high dependent population - Japan or UK

1.4 population density and distribution

• Describe the factors influencing the density and distribution of population
• Physical, economic, social and political factors
• country with a low population density - NW and NE Brazil
• country with a high population density - SE Brazil

Key terms

• population density
• sparsely populated
• densely populated
• even distribution
• uneven distribution

Folie 20

• case study on Brazil and how the goment made it hard to access to the amzone, and roads

1.5 settlement and service provision

• Explain the patterns of settlement
• Describe and explain the factors which may
• influence the sites, growth and functions of
• settlements
• Give reasons for the hierarchy of settlements
• and services
• Dispersed, linear, and nucleated settlement
• patterns
• Influence of physical factors (including relief,
• soil, water supply) and other factors (including
• accessibility, resources)
• High-, middle- and low-order settlements and
• services. Sphere of influence and threshold
• population
• settlement and service provision in an are - London or SE England

1.6 Urban settlement

• Describe and give reasons for the
• characteristics of, and changes in, land use in
• urban areas
• Explain the problems of urban areas, their
• causes and possible solutions
• Land use zones including the Central Business
• District (CBD), residential areas, industrial
• areas and the rural-urban fringe of urban areas
• in countries at different levels of economic
• development
• The effect of change in land use and rapid
• urban growth in an urban area including the
• effects of urban sprawl
• Different types of pollution (air, noise, water,
• visual), inequality, housing issues, traffic
• congestion and conflicts over land use change
• An urban area - LONDON’S ZONES, (POLLUTION AND MANAGEMENT METHODS

1.7 Urbanisationn

• Identify and suggest reasons for rapid urban
• growth
• Describe the impacts of urban growth on both
• rural and urban areas, along with possible
• solutions to reduce the negative impacts
• Reference should be made to physical,
• economic and social factors which result
• in rural depopulation and the movement of
• people to major cities
• The effects of urbanisation on the people and
• natural environment. The characteristics of
• squatter settlements
• Strategies to reduce the negative impacts of
• urbanisation

The Natural Environment

• 2.1 earthquakes and volcanoes
• 2.2 rivers
• 2.3 coast
• 2.4 weather
• 2.5 climate and the natural vegetation

Key terms

• density
• composition
• physical state
• asthenosphere
• crust
• mantle
• outer core
• the core
• basalt
• trenches
• continental crust
• oceanic crust
• tectonic plates
• plate boundaries
• constructive plate boundaries
• destructive plate boundaries
• conservative plate boundaries

earthquakes and volcanoes 2.1

• Describe the main types and features of
• volcanoes and earthquakes
• Describe and explain the distribution of
• earthquakes and volcanoes
• Describe the causes of earthquakes and
• volcanic eruptions and their effects on people
• and the environment
• Demonstrate an understanding that volcanoes
• present hazards and offer opportunities for
• people
• Explain what can be done to reduce the
• impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes
• Types of volcanoes (including strato-volcanoes
• [composite cone] and shield volcano)
• Features of volcanoes (including crater, vent,
• magma chamber)
• Features of earthquakes (including epicentre,
• focus, intensity)
• The global pattern of plates, their structure,
• and an awareness of plate movements and their effects – constructive/divergent,
• destructive/convergent and conservative plate
• boundaries
• earthquake - Haiti (2010) or Japan (2011)
• volcano - Mt. St. Helen

structure of the earth

continental and oceanic crust

• continental crust
• mainly made out of granite
• thicker than basalt
• 30 - 50 km thick
• it's thicker but less dense
• the continental crust is mainly made out of granite, its thicker than basalt however it is less dense compared to basalt. This is because when molten rock cools down and solidifies the process is slower. As the molten rock cools, the larger the crystals become. For example, gabbro has larger crystals than basalt because the molten rock that formed gabbro cooled more slowly. The continental crust is 30 - 50 km thick.
• oceanic crust
• mainly made out of basalt
• thiner than granite
• 6 - 8 km thick
• it's thiner but denser
• the oceanic crust is mainly made out of basalt, and it's denser than the continental crust because it cools quicker creating smaller crystals due to its location under the sea or ocean. The oceanic crust is 6 - 8 km thick..

plate tectonics

• 
• An earthquake is caused by sudden shifting of the plates
• A volcano forms when liquid rocks burst out through earths surface

destructive (convergent)

• 
• Bildunterschrift: example ; Nazca and the South American plate
• As the plates move toward each other the oceanic plate is destroyed because it is denser, forcing it beneath the less dense continental plate at a 45* angle. An ocean trench is created because the oceanic plate is dragged down. Friction between the two plates causes an earthquake, a volcano and more mountains to form. An example would be the Nazca and the South American plate.

constructive (divergent)

• 
• Bildunterschrift: example ; Iceland
• As two plates move away from each other molten rocks / magma rises to fill any possible gaps. As it dries up, it creates gabbro. Because the ocean is widening 2-3 cm per year it causes earthquakes and gentle volcanoes to form. This happens because convection current pushes them away from each other creating mid ocean ridges with volcanoes. An example would be Iceland.

collision

• 
• Bildunterschrift: example; Mt. Everest (Himalayas) in India and Eurasian plate
• Here the continental crust can not sink or be destroyed. The collision of the two plates causes the inverting sediment (layers of material) to push upwards creating mountains. The continental plate is moving 25 mm per year. The hottest part of our earth is the core and it heats uptake magma above it, that pushes and drags the tectonic plates towards each other. An example would be the Himalayas.

conservative / transform / passive

• 
• As two plates slide past each other no plates are being destroyed, dragged towards each other or pushed down, thus no volcanoes or mountain are being formed. However an earthquake may appear if there is friction between the two plates. Thus shock waves are shot up causing an earthquake. An example would be The San Andreas Fault in California - the North American and Pacific plate.
• Bildunterschrift: The San Andreas Fault in California

Volcanoes

convection currents

• The core is around 5500* C to 6000* C due to radioactive decay, this causes the magma to become less dense thus causes the magma rises towards the crust. This is because the particles are heated and begin to move apart. As the magma rises it hits the earths crust pulling it apart or colliding it towards each other (destructive / constructive plates). The then cools down becoming more dense and sinks down towards the core again.

volcanoes

• strato volcano
• steepness of side
• 6 - 10* slopes at the bottom and 30* near the summit. The steep slopes result from short, wide and vicious eruptions. (Because rock and ash build up in thick layers around the volcano)
• eruption material
• alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, because that is usually the material that comes out when its a more explosive and violent.
• type of boundary
• destructive plate boundaries. The oceanic crust melts and rises up through the continental crust to erupt.
• they have massive violent and very loud explosions of rock and ash because they erupt very rarely and thus have a lot of trapped gases so huge pressure builds up from beneth
• shield volcano
• steepness of side
• it's a more gentle slope at 5* angle, and a steeper lower slope with a 10* angle. They usually have a rough circular or oval wide shape area.. Because the runny lava spreads out a long way from the point of eruption.
• eruption material
• runny lava, because the low viscosity allows the lava to flow quickly
• type of boundary
• constructive plate boundaries. Because a gap is left and lava from the mantle rises up to create new land.
• they have more gentle eruptions with runny lava because they erupt more frequently and have no gases in them so no pressure builds up

why do people live near volcanoes

• fertile soil - the break down of volcanic rock produces soil rich in nutrients. This means that crops grow well and support large numbers of people to produce more than they need so that they can sell some. Example the Philippines around 30 000 people live around Mt. Pinatubo.
• geothermal energy - countries such as New Zealand and Iceland that have volcanic activity close to the surface use the heat from the volcanoes to produce about 70% of their energy needs by pumping water into the ground and releasing it as steam to drive turbines.
• tourism - many people are fascinated by volcanoes and like to visit them. This brings money into the area and encourage businesses such as hotels and shops and tour guides to set up in the area. An example would be Mt. St Helens
• minerals - when lava in a volcano cools it often leaves the area rich in minerals deposits such as gold, silver, copper and diamonds. This means that people can extract these by mining and make a living

management

• lava divergent channels (tunnels leaving lava away)
• early prediction - seismometer, detects earthquakes by measuring the angle of bulge

earthquakes

• impacts;
• infrastructure damage
• death
• downfall of economy
• tsunami
• liquefaction
• landslide
• liquefaction is when water surfaces due to vibration of land

Earthquake

• powerful forces pushes two huge mass of rock into each other. The rock stores up pressure as strain energy
• but suddenly the pressure becomes too much. One mass of rock gives away and will move upwards. The stored energy is released in waves.
• the shaking of the ground is called an earthquake
• as the rock settle into its new position there will be lots of smaller earthquakes called aftershocks
• focus; of the earthquake is the point where the waves start
• epicentre; is the point directly above it on the earths surface.
• 

case study

• Japan
• the earthquake lasted 5 minutes
• magnitude of 9
• the Eurasian plate and the Pacific plate pushed against each other
• impacts
• the coast sank 1m
• waves then traveled 60km per sec
• here the waves are fast but not damaging yet
• however they slow down to 3km per second and become damaging
• Fucusima - destroyed power reactor
• the tsunami was 6km deep and over 800km per hour
• response
• warnings were send to people via phone
• the reactor was shut down however it was still in cooling process
• quickly set up shelters
• cleared the dead body washed ashore as it became unhygienic

river 2.2

• Explain the main hydrological characteristics
• and processes which operate within rivers and
• drainage basins
• Demonstrate an understanding of the work of
• a river in eroding, transporting and depositing
• Describe and explain the formation of the
• landforms associated with these processes
• Demonstrate an understanding that rivers
• present hazards and offer opportunities for
• people
• Explain what can be done to manage the
• impacts of river flooding
• Characteristics of rivers (including width,
• depth, speed of flow) and drainage basins
• (including watershed, tributary, confluence)
• Processes which operate in a drainage basin
• (including interception, infiltration, throughflow,
• groundwater flow, evaporation, overland flow)
• Forms of river valleys – long profile and
• shape in cross section, waterfalls, potholes,
• meanders, oxbow lakes, deltas, levées and
• flood plains
• Causes of hazards including flooding and river
• erosion
• Opportunities of living on a flood plain, a delta
• or near a river
• The opportunities presented by a river or rivers, the associated hazards and their management BANGLADESH,
• DELTA, FLOODING IN BANGLADESH, THREE GORGES DAM/KISSIMMEE RIVER RESTORATION

coast 2.3

• Demonstrate an understanding of the work of
• the sea and wind in eroding, transporting and
• depositing
• Describe and explain the formation of the
• landforms associated with these processes
• Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps
• and the conditions required for their
• development
• Demonstrate an understanding that coasts
• present hazards and offer opportunities for
• people
• Explain what can be done to
• manage the impacts of coastal
• erosion
• Cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches,
• stacks, bay and headland coastlines, beaches,
• spits, and coastal sand dunes
• Hazards including coastal erosion and tropical
• storms
• Cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches,
• stacks, bay and headland coastlines, beaches,
• spits, and coastal sand dunes
• Hazards including coastal erosion and tropical
• storms

weather 2.4

• Describe how weather data is collected
• Make calculations using information from
• weather instruments
• Use and interpret graphs and other diagrams
• showing weather and climate data
• Describe and explain the characteristics, siting
• and use made of a Stevenson screen
• Rain gauge, maximum-minimum thermometer,
• wet-and-dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer),
• sunshine recorder, barometer, anemometer
• and wind vane, along with simple digital
• instruments which can be used for weather
• observations; observations of types and
• amounts of cloud

climate and natural vegetation 2.5

• Describe and explain the characteristics of two
• climates:
• • equatorial
• • hot desert
• Describe and explain the characteristics of
• tropical rainforest and hot desert ecosystems
• Describe the causes and effects of
• deforestation of tropical rainforest
• Climate characteristics (including temperature
• [mean temperature of the hottest month,
• mean temperature of the coolest month,
• annual range]; and precipitation [the amount
• and seasonal distribution])
• Factors influencing the characteristics of these
• climates (including latitude, pressure systems,
• winds, distance from the sea, altitude and
• ocean currents)
• Climatic graphs showing the main
• characteristics of temperature and rainfall of
• the two climates
• The relationship in each ecosystem of natural
• vegetation, soil, wildlife and climate
• Effects on the natural environment (both locally
• and globally) along with effects on people
• an area of tropical rainforest - Borneo
• tropical desert - Great Sandy Desert Australia

locations: tropical rainforest and deserts

Economic development

• 3.1 development
• 3.2 food production
• 3.3 industry
• 3.4 tourism
• 3.5 energy
• 3.6 water
• 3.7 environmental risk and development

development 3.1

• Use a variety of indicators to assess the level
• of development of a country
• Identify and explain inequalities between and
• within countries
• Classify production into different sectors and
• give illustrations of each
• Describe and explain how the proportions
• employed in each sector vary according to the
• level of development
• Describe and explain the process of
• globalisation, and consider its impacts
• Indicators of development (including GNP per
• capita, literacy, life expectancy and composite
• indices, e.g. Human Development Index (HDI)
• Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
• sectors
• Use of indicators of development and
• employment structure to compare countries at
• different levels of economic development and
• over time
• The role of technology and transnational
• corporations in globalisation along with
• economic factors which give rise to
• globalisation
• Impacts at a local, national and global scale
• a transitional cooperation and its global links - NIKE

food production 3.2

• Describe and explain the main features of an
• agricultural system: inputs, processes and
• outputs
• Recognise the causes and effects of food
• shortages and describe possible solutions to
• this problem
• Farming types: commercial and subsistence;
• arable, pastoral and mixed; intensive and
• extensive
• The influence of natural and human inputs on
• agricultural land use. Inputs including natural
• inputs (relief, climate and soil) and human
• inputs (economic and social). Their combined
• influences on the scale of production, methods
• of organisation and the products of agricultural
• systems
• Natural problems which cause food shortages
• (including drought, floods, tropical storms,
• pests) along with economic and political
• factors (including low capital investment, poor
• distribution/transport difficulties, wars)
• The negative effects of food shortages,
• but also the effects of food shortages in
• encouraging food aid and measures to increase
• output
• a farm agriculture system - rice paddies (banjar tangtu)
• comercial farming - Swaziland

industry 3.3

• Demonstrate an understanding of an industrial
• system: inputs, processes and outputs
• (products and waste)
• Describe and explain the factors influencing
• the distribution and location of factories and
• industrial zones
• Industry types: manufacturing, processing,
• assembly and high technology industry
• The influence of factors including land, labour,
• raw materials and fuel and power, transport,
• markets and political factors
• Their combined influences on the location,
• scale of production, methods of organisation
• and the products of the system
• Industrial zones and/or factories with respect
• to locational and siting factors
• industrial zone - high tech industry Bangladore, India

tourism 3.4

• Describe and explain the growth of tourism in
• relation to the main attractions of the physical
• and human landscape
• Evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of
• tourism to receiving areas
• Demonstrate an understanding that careful
• management of tourism is required in order for
• it to be sustainable
• an area of high tourism - Bali, Indonesia

energy 3.5

• Describe the importance of non-renewable
• fossil fuels, renewable energy supplies,
• nuclear power and fuelwood; globally and
• in different countries at different levels of
• development
• Evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of
• nuclear power and renewable energy sources
• Non-renewable fossil fuels including coal, oil
• and natural gas.
• Renewable energy supplies
• including geothermal, wind, HEP, wave and
• tidal power, solar power and biofuels
• energy supply in a country - China

water 3.6

• Describe methods of water supply and the
• proportions of water used for agriculture,
• domestic and industrial purposes in countries
• at different levels of economic development
• Explain why there are water shortages in
• some areas and demonstrate that careful
• management is required to ensure future
• supplies
• Methods of water supply (including reservoirs/
• dams, wells and bore holes, desalination)
• The impact of lack of access to clean water
• on local people and the potential for economic
• development
• water supply in a country and management method - SW USA and The Colorado River

environmental risk and development 3.7

• Describe how economic activities may pose
• threats to the natural environment, locally and
• globally
• Demonstrate the need for sustainable
• development and management
• Understand the importance of resource
• conservation
• Threats to the natural environment including
• soil erosion, desertification, enhanced global
• warming and pollution (water, air, noise, visual)
• an area where economic development is taking place causing the environment at risk - Linfen, China

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