Karteikarten
Sem&Prag
Karten in diesem Stapel (94)
- 1proposition (as part of message)>mental entity corresponding to a potential event/situation in a discourse world
>part of the meaning of an utterance that could be rated as true or false if meant as a statement - 2propositionsas simple sentences are complex in meaning and composed of predicating and referring expressions
- 3propositionally synonymoussentences that are true/false under the same conditions but NOT communicatively identical
- 4semiotic triangle for propositionsclause uttered means a complex concept (proposition) which determines truth conditions
- 5Entailment>each proposition has range of logical entailments
>statements that are logically included by the sentence meaning
>true if proposition is true
disappear under negation - 6clausal utterancesconvey a proposition
- 7felicity conditions (which?, Austin)>preparatory condition
>propositional content condition
>sincerity condition
>essential condition - 8preparatory condition (felicity condition, Austin)dealing with background circumstances required by speech act > speaker and hearer must be in a position to act accordingly
- 9propositional content condition (felicity condition, Austin)dealing with the meaning that is linguistically coded
- 10sincerity condition (felicity condition, Austin)dealing with the speaker's inner/psychological state
- 11essential condition (felicity condition, Austin)dealing with the illocution itself (valid attempt by the speaker to achieve desired effect)
- 12equative sentencetwo referring expressions have the same referent
- 13generic sentences>do not refer at all because these sentences make statement about an entire class/category (about all members)
>no specific referent > no utterance - 14Definiteness in referring expressions>expressed by definite article or demonstrative determiner
>help hearer identify the referent of NP
>only one potential referent in context
>referent unique in universe of discourse
>identified by other reasons ( introduced before) - 15Speech-act classes
- 16an utterance is embedded in layers of context
- 17sense>is no thing at all, it is an abstraction or idea in people's minds, dictionaries usually try to paraphrase or define this idea
>every expression has a sense
>rather elusive - 18reference>is often an entity: a thing or a person in the world
>not every expression refers
>the specific element
>rather solid - 19referring expressions (definition)>is any expression used in an utterance to refer to something or someone; i.e. used with a particular referent in mind
>specific reference - 20referring expressions (what can be used)>definite NPs
>indefinite or pluralised NPs (can be)
>ambiguous sentence (a particular X/any X)
>equative sentences
>fictive referents
>abstract referents - 21Universe of discourse>model of the world existing in the minds of the interlocutors
>developed/maintained during discourse (therefore dynamic)
>model can contain real/fictive elements - 22Common Ground>communication relies on mutual assumption of interlocutors that they share the same universe of discourse
- 23Indefiniteness in referring expressionssignals that a referent is not yet an identifiable part of the universe of discourse
- 24degrees of predicating expressions>degree 1: one-place predicates
>degree 2: two-place predicates
>degree 3: three-place predicates - 25predicating expression (definition)>the predicator of a simple declarative sentence is the word that does not belong to any of the referring expressions and makes the most specific contribution to the meaning of the sentence
>describes the state/progress in which the referring expressions are involved - 26one-place-predicate>intransitive verbs (e.g. sleep)
>predicative uses of nouns and adjectives (e.g. hero; asleep) - 27two-place predicates>transitive verbs (e.g. hit)
>lexical prepositions (e.g. near)
>predicative use of adjectives and nouns that take complements (e.g. afraid of; mother) - 28three-place-predicates>ditransitive & complex-transitive verbs (e.g. give)
>some prepositional verbs (e.g. provide with) - 29sense vs. denotation>inverse relation between sense and denotation
>the more features/attributes are needed to define the sense of a word >the smaller is the denotation (i.e. number of potential referents) - 30denotation>a stable relation to a model of an extra-linguistic world
>the class of all elements in that model to which an expression can potentially be applied in an act of referent
>words denote - 31deictics>word that takes some elements of its meaning from the context or situation of the utterance in which it is used
>pointing relation
>introduces indexical element - 32object deixisidentify entities near the speaker or further away from it (e.g. this/these, that/those)
- 33time deixisidentifies the day before/after the day of the utterance (e.g. yesterday, tomorrow)
- 34person deixisidentifies the speaker and his/her interlocutors (e.g. I/my, you/your)
- 35spatial deixisidentifies movement away from/towards the speaker (e.g. go/take, come/bring); locations near/further away from the speaker (e.g. here/there)
- 36compositionality of meaning>propositions are complex meanings
>composed of predicating and referring expressions
>can be nested into each other - 37simple notation proposition (normal case)example
Barney introduced Ted to Robin.
b INTRODUCE t r - 38simple notation proposition (copula)example
The pond is behind the house.
p BEHIND h - 39felicity conditions of an illocutionary act (definition)are conditions that must be fulfilled in the situation in which the act is carried out if the act is said to be carried out properly (feliciously)
- 40simple model of communication
- 41message consisting of:>speech-act meaning (effect that speaker intends to achieve with utterance)
>expressive meaning (emotional orientation of speaker towards proposition)
>propositional attitude (way in which speaker presents utterance, e.g. true/false)
>proposition - 42meaning>words can mean (Semantics)
>speakers can mean (Pragmatics) - 43Semantics>deals with strictly linguistic resources/tools for expressing meaning (meaning side of language system as system of signs)
>investigates meanings bound to linguistic units out of real contexts of use in which communicative intentions are realized - 44Pragmatics>deals with what speakers do with linguistic resources in real communicative contexts, i.e. with speaker meaning
- 45Saussure's Egg (Saussure's original notation)>signifier (mental entity) and signified (correlated meaning)
>elliptic line indicates autonomy
>horizontal line and arrows indicate consisting of two aspects - 46Arbitraryness Assumption (Saussure)>relation between concept and sound image is arbitrary (convention only)
>applies primarily to simple (monomorphemic) words
>two aspects held together by agreement of speech community - 47Semiotic Triangle>triadic relation between linguistic form, concept and referent
- 48Organon Modell>unites Semantic and Pragmatic aspects
signs consist of:
>signal (addressee: appeal)
>symptom (sender: expression)
>symbol (entities & relations in world: representation) - 49Peirce>distinguishes Icon, Index and Symbol
- 50Icon>relation between form and meaning is one of similarity in that the form resembles the meaning
>image: rich and detailed similarity
>diagram: skeletal and schematic similarity - 51Index>relation between form and meaning is one of immediate contiguity or even causal relatedness in time or space
- 52Symbol>relation between form and meaning is one of convention only
>arbitraryness assumption - 53onomapoetic wordsiconicity in language
>voice creates similarity in sound
>children's words, playful quality
1) true repetitions
2) rhyming combinations
3) words with vowel alternation - 54imagistic iconicitysign language
>determined by convention, has to be learnt
>high motivation of some signs - 55diagrammatic iconicityabove the unit of mono-morphemic words
1) iconicity of sequence
2) iconicity of proximity/distance
3) iconicity of quantity - 56indexicality in languagedeictics
>always refer to the speakers location in time and space "ORIGIO" - 57isomorphism>strong tendency towards 1:1 relation between signifier and signified
>strong motivating force shaping linguistic systems
>violations: synonymy, homonymy - 58Polysemy>one form paired with several closely related meanings; exhibit more than one sense
>natural & frequent in language due to shifts of meaning - 59Shifts of meaning1) metaphorical (across different domains of experience)
2) metonymical shifts (contiguity relation within one domain)
3) generalization/specification - 60Centrality Effect>some senses of polysemous words are more typical than other
>concrete, more frequently used, earlier
>greatest sources for meaning shift - 61Homonymy>two different signs which have entirely unrelated meanings but exhibit identical forms of different origins by chance
>accidental - 62Layers of lexical meaning>core aspects
>additional layers (connotations: associative meanings of a word reflect) - 63Survey of connotations>regional (from a particular region)
>socio-cultural (belong to certain ethnic/cultural group)
>expressive (particular positive/negative attitude towards referent of word)
>stylistic/register (used in specific situations) - 64syntagmatic sense relations>chain relations
>relations between words that can be combined with each other to form complex linguistic expression
>collocatives (preferred word combinations)
>combinatorial - 65paradigmatic sense relations>choice relations
>relations between words that can appear in the same syntactic slot of an expression - 66Survey paradigmatic sense relations
- 67Hyponymy>the subordinate word is semantically more specific >its feature set includes all features of the superordinate word
- 68Co-hyponymy>the meaning of several hyponyms of the same superordinate word mutually exclude each other
>taxonomic sisters - 69Basic level>last level where you can create mental image
>maximally informative
>acquired early
>morphologically simple words - 70Meronymy>denote parts of the meanings of their holonyms which denote a larger, more complex entity
- 71Synonymy>absolute synonymy is absolutely rare
>most synonyms are near-synonyms only - 72kinds of antonymy>contradictory/strict antonymy (negation of one defines the only other)
>converse antonymy (change of perspective within same semantic frame)
>gradable antonymy (negation provides range)
>directional antonymy (result of one process cancels out that of other) - 73Prototype>object which is held to be very typical of the kind of object which can be referred to by an expression containing the predicate
>e.g. bachelor - 74Compositionality of meaning>is that the meaning of any expression is a function of the meanings of the parts of which it is composed
- 75kinds of complex meanings>analytic sentences (always true)
>contradictory sentences (always false, incompatible features)
>sythetic sentences (depending on universe of discourse) - 76utteranceis any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person
- 77inference>is any conclusion that one is reasonably entitled to draw from a sentence or utterance
- 78politeness (Leech)>six politeness maxims competing with CP
>tact (maximize benefit to other)
>generosity (maximize cost to self)
>approbation (maximize praise of other)
>modesty (minimize praise of self)
>agreement (minimize disagreement)
>sympathy (maximize sympathy between self and other) - 79face>is the public image of the self
>has positive social value
>is emotion-invested (creates immediate emotional response when face-management exceeds or fails)
>is maintained in the context of social interactions - 80positive face saving strategies>attend to hearer
>exaggerate interest/approval/sympathy
>use in-group solidarity markers
>seek agreement
>presuppose, assert common ground
>offer/promise, give/ask for advice
>include speaker and hearer in activity - 81negative face saving strategies>be indirect
>hedge
>question
>show deference
>be ambiguous
>overgeneralize
>state face-threatening act as rule
>go on record as being in speakers debt - 82request strategies (expressing illocution)>direct request (imperative, performative, want statements)
>conventionally indirect request (availability, prediction, permission, willingness, ability)
>non-conventionally indirect request (hints) - 83Grice's Cooperation Principle....
- 84Speech-Situation Model....
- 85Implicature> implied meaning generated intentionally by the speaker
- 86Difference CP and PP>competing with each other
>PP focus on how people establish and maintain social relationships
>CP focus on how utterances convey information (beyond what is literally coded by linguistic means) - 87Face-based politeness theory>face defined in terms of basic wants of every participant in a social interaction
>positive face: want of every member that his wants are desirable to at least some others
>negative face: want of every competent adult member that his actions are unimpeded by others - 88constatives>statement-making utterances which code for a proposition i.e. which can be true or false
- 89performatives>utterances used to do things or perform acts which do not lend themselves to an analyses in terms of truth conditions
- 90explicit performatives contain>a performative verb
>a first person (sometimes plural) subject
>could insert "hereby"
>verbs in present progressive - 91Austin/Searle Speech Acts>locution (literal/coded meaning of actual words uttered)
>illocution (speech-act force or speaker meaning)
>perlocution (effect of the utterance on the hearer) - 92Clause type as IFID of direct speech acts>declarative sentences (declarative, expressive, assertive, commissive)
>interrogative sentences (request for information)
>imperative sentences (directive)
>exclamative sentences (expressive) - 93non-observing the maxims>violating the maxim (speaker may be liable to mislead)
>opting out (states that unwilling to cooperate)
>flouting: creation of conversational implicature (fails openly) - 94conventional vs. conversational implicature>conversational created by flouting
>conventional created with trigger words (yet, even, but, etc.)
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- Karteikarten am Sem&Prag, erstellt von Sandra Finsterbusch am 06/02/2018.
- Erstellt von
- Sandra Finsterbusch
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