Karteikarten
PSYC 2540 II
Karten in diesem Stapel (141)
- 1Self-schema:an organized body of knowledge about the self (attitudes, preferences, traits) that influences what people notice, think, and remember about themselves
- 2Self-concept clarity:(Jennifer Campbell) the extent to which knowledge about the self is stable, and clearly and consistently defined, which suggests that some of us have a clearer sense of who we are than others
- 3What tends to be paired with low self-clarity?tends to be paired with low self-esteem, depression, high neuroticism, and are generally less aware of their internal states than those who are high in self clarity
- 4What is the independent view of the self?defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and action, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people
- 5What is the interdependent view of the self?defining oneself in terms of one' relationships to other people and recognizing that one's behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
- 6What is relational interdependence?focus more on close relationships to other people, such as a friend, romantic partner, or child; is more common in women
- 7Describe collective interdependence:define oneself in terms of social groups such as sports teams; more common among men
- 8What is introspection?the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
- 9What are 3 problems with introspection?1. people cannot accurately report reasons for their behaviour
2. reports are based on a priori theories about causal connections, not cognitive processes at the time
3. reports can sometimes be correct but it is often an accident - 10What is self awareness theory?the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour with their internal standards and values; become self-conscious - objective, judgmental observers of ourselves
- 11Which culture is more likely to have an outsider perspective of the self?East Asians, whereas Westerners are more likely to have an insider perspective
- 12What are causal theories?theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviours; typically learned from culture
- 13What did Nisbett and Wilson study concerning causal theories?the presence of annoying noises on mood; the noise was not attributed as the cause of the bad mood
- 14Describe self-perception theory:when attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we under these states by observing out behaviour and the situation in which it occurred, only when we are uncertain of how we feel; is it the behaviour or the situation?
- 15Overjustification effect:the case whereby people view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which their behaviour was caused by intrinsic reasons
- 16The looking glass self:the idea that the see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept
- 17Social comparison theory:we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people
- 18What is the self-regulatory resource model?self-control is a limited resource that gets tired with frequent use, but then rebounds in strength; trying to suppress thoughts in one task can limit the ability to continue to suppress thoughts in a new but unrelated task
- 19What is downward social comparison?the process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability self protecting and self-enhancing
- 20What is self-enhancement?an unrealistically positive view of ourselves
- 21What is the false uniqueness effect?believe that many others share your weaknesses but that you are unique in your strengths
- 22What is self-effacement?tendency to hold a negative view of oneself; prevalent in Asian cultures
- 23What is the argument against self-effacement in Asian cultures?cultural difference in self-presentation; don't admit to self-enhancement because Asian culture values modesty; but in a cognitive load study Japanese participants still self-enhanced less than Canadians
- 24Describe self-verification theory:suggests that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether that self-concept is positive or negative
- 25What is the conflict/discomfort involved in self-verification theory?in some circumstances, it can conflict with the desire to uphold a positive view of oneself; it can be confusing to have our self-views disconfirmed and can be uncomfortable to interact with people who view us differently than ourselves
- 26What are attitudes?evaluations of people, objects to ideas
- 27What are the three components of attitudes?affective: emotional reaction
cognitive: thoughts and beliefs
behavioural: actions - 28What is an affectively based attitude?an attitude based primarily on people's emotions and feelings about the attitude object
ex: we can feel very positive about something in spit of having negative beliefs, and we have a tendency to vote more with our hearts than our minds - 29What is one example of an affectively based attitude?religious and moral beliefs; don't result from a rational examination of the issue, not governed by logic, but is often linked to people's values
- 30Describe cognitively based attitudes:based primarily on a person's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object classifies the pros and cons
- 31Describe behaviourally based attitudes:stems from people's observations of how they behave toward an attitude or object
- 32Explicit vs implicit attitudes:attitudes that we consciously endorse and easily report are explicit and implicit ate unconscious and involuntary
- 33what is the theory of planned behaviour?a theory that the best predictors of a person's deliberate behaviours are the person's attitudes towards specific behaviours, subject norms, and perceived behavioural control
- 34How do indications of behaviour according to the theory of planned behaviour change depending on culture?personal attitudes tend to be stronger in individualistic cultures whereas social norms can be stronger in collectivist cultures
- 35what are subjective norms?beliefs about how the people you care about will view your behaviour
- 36What is perceived behavioural control?the ease with which people believe they can perform a behaviour
- 37How does perceived behavioural control relate to condom usage?people have positive attitudes toward condom usage yet fail to use them; a subjective norm you die how our partner feels about condom usage, perceived behavioural control would be the action of talking about or buying condoms
- 38Describe persuasive communication:communication advocating a particular side of an issue like a speech or television advertisement
- 39What is the Yale attitude change approach?the study of conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages; study the source of communication, communication itself and the nature of the audience
- 40What is the elaboration likelihood model?the theory that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change - central route and peripheral route
- 41describe the central route of communication:when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication
- 42Describe the peripheral route of communication:when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by the surface characteristics; if they are tired, bored or unable to concentrate
- 43What is fear arousing communication?a persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears; could fail as a technique if it is too overwhelming
ex: smoking packages - 44What is the best way to fight cognitive attitudes and affective attitudes ?cognitive with rational facts and affective with emotion
- 45What is subliminal messaging?words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but that supposedly influence people's judgments, attitudes and behaviours; not proven in everyday life but has been proven in a lab setting
- 46What is attitude inoculation?the process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small does of arguments against their positions; can be effective in fighting peer pressure and makes people more able to resist attacks on their attitudes
- 47Why is product placement so effective?because people generally don't realize that their attitudes and behaviours are trying to be influence and therefore don't generate counter arguments
- 48What can be an effective tool against product placement?forewarning people that someone is about to try to change their attitudes
- 49What is cognitive dissonance?a feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one's behaviour is inconsistent with one's attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes
- 50How can we try to alleviate the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance?attempting to justify our behaviour through change one of the dissonant cognitions; often involves changing our attitudes to bring them in line with our behaviour
- 51What is post-decision dissonance?dissonance that is inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision
- 52How is post decision dissonance typically reduced?enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternative; the more permanent the decision the greater the need to reduce dissonance
- 53Which areas of the brain are active during dissonance?striatum and highly specific areas of the prefrontal cortex
- 54Describe justification of effort:the tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
- 55What is external justification?a person's reason or explanation for dissonance behaviour that resides outside the individual (reward or punishment)
- 56What is internal justification?the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (attitude or behaviour)
- 57What is counter-attitudinal advocacy:the process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitudes that run counter to his or her private belief or attitude
- 58What is insufficient punishment:the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object
- 59How do people justify themselves in the aftermath of bad deeds and give an example:convince themselves that the object of abuse was bad; torturers in Somalia derogated or dehumanized their victims
- 60What is a rationalization trap?the potential for dissonance reduction to produce a succession of self-justifucation that ultimately results in a chain of stupid or immoral decisions
- 61What is self-affirmation theory?a theory suggesting the topple will reduce the impact of a dissonance arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence in some other dimension unrelated to the threat
- 62How can we inoculate students against cheating?a temporary boost to self-esteem can serve to inoculate students against cheating because the dissonance would be greater if they cheated; reminding people of their morals may reduce a rationalization trap
- 63What are some cultural differences in the justification of decisions?European-canadians tend to justify decision when they are made fro themselves whereas East aAsians tend to justify when the decisions are made for a close other
- 64What are social norms?the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members
- 65Describe conformity:a change in behaviour as a result of the real or imagined influence of other people; we seem to conform more than we want to admit
- 66What was Sherif's theory about social norms?once people converge on a norm, they use other people's judgments as a guide for what is accurate or right
- 67What was Stone's theory concerning conformity?form our initial norms alone, with one other judge, or three other judges; those who formed the initial norm with three judges were the most resistant
- 68What is normative social influence?stems from the need for connectedness
the need to be liked and accepted by others; results in public compliance with group's belief and behaviours but not necessarily private acceptance - 69What is informational social influence?stems from the need for mastery; conforming because we believe that other people's interpretations fo an ambiguous social influence is more accurate than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action
- 70Public compliance:conforming to other people's behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what they are doing or saying
- 71What is private acceptance?conforming to other people's behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing is right
- 72Describe Asch's study of conformity:gets people to make line length judgments and confederates give obviously wrong answers
more than half of the subjects conformed three or fewer times and only a small percentage demonstrated total conformity, but these are high rates of conformity considering how obvious the answer was - 73In Asch's studies, what dramatically decreases conformity?a dissenter that provides social support and breaks the consensus
- 74In conformity high in an ambiguous or non-ambiguous situation?ambiguous
- 75Describe Allen and Levine's dissenter study:conformity assessed in terms of changing from pre-test to response in a group setting (fire in hotel and pluralistic ignorance)
- 76What was Prentice and Miller's hypothesis in the Princeton alcohol norms study?over time, people would change their own attitudes in the direction of what they perceived to be the group norm; feelings of deviance stemming from pluralistic ignorance would be associated with feelings of alienation from the group
- 77What is Brewer's optimal distinctiveness theory?the need for assimilation and differentiation are equally important
- 78How do people tend to react in an ambiguous or crisis situation?in ambiguous situations, peopler are especially likely to be influenced by the actions fo those around them; in a crisis, more likely to succumb to forms of influence (SHOCK DOCTRINE)
- 79Describe contagion:the rapid transmission of emotions or behaviour through a crowd
- 80What is mass psychogenic illness?the occurrence of similar physical symptoms for which there is no known physical or medical cause in a group of people
ex: toxic bus incident - 81Describe social impact theory:the theory that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group, the imedecacy (how close they are) and the number of people in the group
- 82In a group situation, when are we more likely to conform?when we are attracted to a group and reminded that we don't quite fit in
- 83What are idiosyncrasy credits?the credits a person earns over time by conforming to a group's norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned then the person can on occasion behave in a deviant matter without retribution form the group
- 84What is minority influence?the case in which a minority of group members influences the behaviour of beliefs of the majority, which can produce private acceptance with informational social influence
- 85Describe compliance:change in behaviour in response to a direct request from another person
- 86What is the door-in-the-face technique?a technique to get people to comply with a request whereby people are first presented with a large request, which they re expected to refuse, and then with a smaller and more reasonable request with which they will hopefully acquiesce
- 87What is the reciprocity norm?a social norm by which the receipt of something positive from another person requires you to reciprocate or behave similarly in response
- 88Describe the foot in the door technique:presented with a small request, expected to comply, then followed by a larger request, which it is hoped that they will also acquiesce
- 89Describe lowballing;salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost and then subsequently raises the price; the customer will still make the purchase at the inflated price
- 90What is obedience?conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure
- 91What is a group?a collection of three or more people who interact with one another and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to rely on one another; the need to belong is innate and present in all societies and is evolutionary
- 92Describe social roles:shared expectations by group members about how particular people in the group are supposed to behave
- 93What is an advantage and disadvantage of social roles?helps people to know what to expect from each other
can lose personal identity and personality - 94What is group cohesiveness?qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them - the more cohesive the group, the more likely its members are to stay in the group, participate and recruit new members
- 95What was the study done on cockroaches?how their behaviour was influenced by the presence of other cockroaches
performed a simple task faster when in the presence of other cockroaches - 96How does the presence of others influence performance on a task?increases physiological arousal; easier to do something simple but more difficult to do something complex or learn something now
- 97Describe social facilitation:the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks but worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
- 98Why does the presence of others cause arousal?become particularly alert and vigilant
make us apprehensive about how we are being evaluated
distract us from the task at hand - 99What is social loafing?the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated
reduction of motivation and effort when individuals work collectively
ex: tug of wat - 100What are some factors other than arousal and evaluation apprehension that explain social loafing?dispensibility of effort
justice/fairness concerns (effort matching)
identifiability - 101Tendency towards social loafing is more common with:men and in Western culture than Asian cultures
- 102What is deindividuation?the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, which leads to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
lowers self-awareness, shift away from moral standards and can increase aggression - 103What are some examples of deindividuation?internet anonymity
the Stanford Prison Experiment
Orange Shirt study - 104What is process loss?any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
- 105What are some examples of process loss?tend not to choose the most competent person to follow
do not share unique information
self-doubt - 106What is groupthink?a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
- 107What are some antecedents to groupthink?high desire for cohesiveness
isolation
directive leader
high stress
poor decision making procedures - 108What are some symptoms of groupthink?illusion of invulnerability
refusal to question the rightness of the group
stereotyped view of outgrips
self-censorship
conformity pressure
illusion of unanimity
mind guards - 109Consequences of groupthink:incomplete survey of alternatives
failure to examine risks of the favoured alternatives
poor information search
failure to develop contingency plans - 110How to avoid groupthink:remain impartial
seek outside opinion (avoid insulation)
create subgroups
seek anonymous opinions
appoint devil's advocate
educate members about groupthink - 111What is the critique of groupthink theory?difficulty distinguishing causes, symptoms and consequences
reliance on retrospective analysis
weak evidence for some components - 112Minority influence:the case where a minority of group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority
- 113How are minorities influential:disagreements garner attention and rejection
can be influential when they are consistent committed autonomous fair and confident - 114Critiques of minority influence:analysis may apply to numerical minorities only
majority can have a more long lasting influence
not everyone wants to fit in
minorities can exert real pressure - 115Are groups or individuals more effective at brainstorming ideas?individuals, because groups have evaluation apprehension, free riding and production blocking.
- 116What is group polarization?the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of their members; exaggeration of the initial group feeling
- 117What is great person theory?certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces
- 118What is integrative complexity?the ability to recognize more than one perspective on an issue and to be able to integrate these various perspectives
- 119What is the difference between transactional leaders and transformational leaders?transactional leaders set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them, whereas transformational leaders inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
- 120Describe the contingency theory of leadership:the theory that leadership effectiveness depends on how task-oriented or relationships oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
- 121What is the difference between a relationship oriented leader and a Task-oriented leadera task oriented leader is concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings and relationships among workers and relationship oriented is the opposite
- 122What is social dilemma?a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone
- 123Describe the tit-for-tat strategy:a means of encouraging cooperation by first action cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did on the previous trial; shows willingness to cooperate as well as unwillingness to be exploited
- 124Describe negotiation:a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counter-offers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
- 125Integrative solution:solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes most on issues that are unimportant to it but are important to the other side
- 126Fixed-sum error:assuming that others' priorities are the same as one's own when they're not
- 127What was the correlation found Thompson and Hastie between people making the fixed-sum error and lower pay offr = -0.6
- 128What is associated with better outcomes and greater accuracy in negotiation?revealing information and asking about information
- 129What is the incompatibility error?assuming that others' interests are incompatible with one's own when they aren't
- 130What small technique can improve negotiation outcomes?being required to exchange information; there is general benefit
- 131What are some strategies for enhancing cooperation?Divide resources into smaller segments
Establish superordinate authority - 132How does dividing resources into smaller segments help group cooperation?a smaller group is less likely to have a defector
your own actions matter more in a smaller group
less diffusion of responsibility
but intergroup competition is problematic - 133How does establishing a superordinate authority help group cooperation?Baron and Jurney Regulation Study: people were reluctant to accept regulation even when they perceive that it will be beneficial
Regulation is more acceptable when there is taking rather than giving and have concrete information that others are misusing resources - 134Describe the premise and results of the Cooperator/competitor study:studied what happens when different types of people come together in a dilemma; competitive style dominates, is contagious and self perpetuating but competitors often don't realize their effect on other people's behaviour
- 135What are some of the functions of attitudes?can be instruments of social control when they are directed towards the self from society
self-expression in society (self to society) - 136What are beliefs?are expectations; the subjective probability that an object has or does not have certain characteristics; the cognitive subcomponent of attitudes
- 137What are values?attitudes towards abstract concepts; the kind of person one wants to be, or the life that one wants to live
- 138What was Vohs' conclusion in her study of money?priming the concept of money leads people to distance themselves from others, most likely without noticing, which may partly explain why materialism does not lead to happiness
- 139Why aren't prejudicial attitudes related to discriminatory behaviour?the theory of reasoned action/planned behaviour:
attitude
subjective norm (what others will think)
perceived control over the situation (may not have the power to act on belief)
therefore someone can have a racist attitude but one's act on it if they think they will be looked down upon or don't have the control to perform the act - 140When are some scenarios when attitudes will not correspond with behaviours?general attitudes may not correspond with specific behaviours and vice versa
behaviours are formed in moments of low self-awareness (intoxicated) or low perceived control
attitudes have ambivalent foundation between thoughts an feelings - 141In a democratic society and market economy, what is the key to changing people's behaviours?must change their minds through mass communication
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- Social Psychology Karteikarten am PSYC 2540 II, erstellt von Chantal Delaquis am 06/03/2018.
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