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- 1What is heritability? What is the estimated heritability of intelligence?Heritability = the proportion of variability in a phenotype that is accounted for by variation in the genotype.
-Heritability of IQ is somewhere between 4-8 but it makes little sense to talk about heritability as a single value.
This is because unlike in animals, humans are free beings and their heritability of a trait is dependent on relative variances such as genotype and environment.
Heritability of intelligence isn't zero (genotype will be implicated effecting IQ) and it isn't one (environment will be implicated) - it is between 0-1. - 2Which SES groups show higher heritability of intelligence according to the heritability of SES hypothesis? Which countries and age groups show the strongest and weakest evidence for this hypothesis?Heritability of intelligence test scores is not constant across different races nor SES groups.
Scarr-Salapatek--> heritability for white children than black and for twins raised in relatively rich homes than poorer ones received higher test scores.
USA- heritability of cognitive ability weakest amongst poorer children and young adults. --> seems SES differences in intelligence isn't as prominent in Europe. - 3According to other methods, are adoption studies likely to overestimate or underestimate the role of the environment in predicting intelligence? Why?Adoptive studies may tend to underestimate the role of the environment and overstate the role of genetics.
-Adoptive fams are higher in SES and are generally restricted to that SES group so people don't really look at the impact that this environment whereby the child has more educational opportunities as theres more $ as a factor in their intelligence. - 4What is the possible explanation for the 'heritability of SES' hypothesis suggested in the reading? describe the study that supports this explanation.the hypothesis of group differences in heritability lay mostly fallow for a 20-year period encompassing the time when the Neisser et al. (1996) article was written. Interest in the phenomenon was rekindled in 1999 when Rowe, Jacobson, and Van den Oord (1999) analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a large, repre- sentative sample of American youth, then in early adoles- cence, who were administered a version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Rowe et al.’s analysis showed that most of the variance in families with poorly educated mothers was explained by the shared environment. (Shared environment constitutes the environment that is shared by siblings in the same family and that differs from one family to another, as opposed to aspects of the environment that can differ among siblings, such as being a firstborn versus a later-born child.) Most of the variance for children from well-educated families was explained by genes.
- 5What is the research evidence for specific types of genes underlying differences in intelligence? Is it different to mental retardation?So far progress in finding the genetic locus for complex human traits has been limited.
Where 282 individual genes have been responsible for specific forms of mental retardation have been identified, very little research has been made to find that genes contribute to normal variation.
i.e. Butcher et al. completed a large genome wide scan using 7000 subjects and found only 6 genetic markers associated with cognitive ability. When the 6 markers were considered, they barely explained the 1% variance in general cog. ability.
Finding genes that explain more than a tiny fraction of the variance in the trait has proved daunting. (Goldstein 2009) - 6The article suggests several reasons why it may be so difficult to identify the specific genes responsible for genetic variation in intelligence. Give at least three of these reasons?The possible explanations can be divided into 2 broad categories. The difficulty may originate either in technical problems in specifying the genetic sequence or in broader problems involving the prediction of complex human behaviour or more generally both.
technologies have been brought to bear on the identification of specific genes related to complex traits are still at some distance from the actual genetic sequence.
i.e. Linkage methods (first to be applied to traits such as intelligence) can query the entire genome
i.e. linear specification of the genetic sequence doesn't capture all the information contained in the genome.
i.e. it may be that the no. of genes involved in an outcome as complex as intelligence is very large and therefore the contribution of any individual locus is just as small as the no. of genes is large and hence very difficult to solve without large samples. - 7What are the effects of breastfeeding on IQ? are there confounding variables that may explain this?Breast-feeding seems to increase intelligence; it can increase IQ by up to 6 pt in normal weight babies and up to 8 pts in premature babies.
-Human breast milk contains fatty acids that are not found in formula and have been show to prevent neurological deficits in mice ( Catalan et al.)
The study showed that it was important in raising IQ by up to opts BUT only for the large population of people whom have 1/2 allele at a specific site that regulates fatty acids and is influenced by breast milk.
-Those having another allele at that site did not benefit from breastfeeding (these ppl are a small minority) - 8The paper describes 2 genetic/biological studies that account for some of the effects of breast-feeding on the child's IQ. Describe a/ the genetic contingency (uncertainty) in the effects of breast-feeding on IQ and b/ The animal modelling study.Caspi et al 2007: breastfeeding is effective in raising IQ by about 6 pts but only for the large portion of the population having one of two alleles at a particular site that regulates fatty acids and is influenced by breast-milk. Those having another allele at that site did not benefit fro breast-feeding but people with that allele are in a small minority.
-This speaks against the thought that social class plays a role because the benefit of breast feeding occurred for children with the 2 or more common alleles regardless of mothers status. AND it was the childs allele at the relevant site that was important and not their mothers
ANimal modelling study: perhaps the study conducted by Catalan which shows that breast milk contains fatty acids said to prevent neurological deficits as found in mice. - 9What is the effect of adoption on the IQ of the adopted child? why?Adopted children score 12 pt or higher than comparison adopted child from low SES groups because these children generally move from low SES - high SES homes = more love, support, money for education = influences intellectual growth.
Additionally… Cogn. socialisation: talking to children/ them hearing words (hart and risley): children of pro parents heard more words: 30000 v 10000 and heard a wider vocal that low SES parents. - 10What are the 2 main differences between high and low SES home environments according to Hart and Risley's study?1. Cogn. Socialisation: Talking to children:
- higher SES parents (children of professionals) have heard at least 30 mil words by age 3 + and vocal is much richer than those of lower SES children. Child of unemployed African-American had heard 10mil words by 3 in comparison, vocal wasn't as strong.
2. Encouraging comments made to children Vs. Reprimands:
- Children of professional parents received 6 encouragements for every reprimand.
-Child of working class parents: received 2 encouragements per reprimand and the child of unemployed African Americans received 2 reprimands per encouragement. - 11According to the paper, do twin studies over estimate or underestimate the heritability of intelligence? and WHY?Twin studies, esp. those done with adults are likely to result in higher estimates of genetic effects and lower estimates of environmental effects.
Because lower SES individuals are difficult to recruit to labs and testing sites many studies of heritability give no info about SES and even those that claim to have representative samples of various social class groups may have self selection problems. Lower SES individuals who volunteer may resemble higher SES individuals on variables relevant to over estimation of heritability effect. - 12What are the effects of birth order on IQ? what evidence is there that these effects are social and not biological?Some researchers find that first borns have higher IQs than their siblings (zajonc).
Some recent evidence has shown that theres a difference in IQ of abt. 3 pts in adulthood, favouring 1st borns over younger children which may be understandable in terms of differences in home environment (Kristensen and Bjerkedal)--> 2nd born children in families, in which 1st borns have died early have IQs as high as first borns at age 18.
Zajonc and others argue: 1st borns are higher in IQ because they receive more attention from parents for a period of time.Also, they hear a lot more adult conversations compared to when the second child is born and they are associated with kids content. - 13Name at least 3 sources of evidence that attending school increases IQ scores.Ceci 1991--> natural experiments in which children are deprived of school for an extended period of time show deficits in IQ of as much as 2 SD.
Canan and Cohen (1989) --> children who enter 5th grade approx. a year earlier will have a higher verbal IQ by more than 5 pts. at the end of the school year compared to those who started later.
Ceci and Fencks --> Children who miss a year of school show a drop in several IQ points. - 14What are the effects of early intervention prog on IQ? What are the other effects of early intervention programs?A child who enters fifth grade approximately a year earlier than a child of nearly the same age who enters fourth grade will have a Verbal IQ more than 5 points higher at the end of the school year (Cahan & Cohen, 1989)
The best pre-kindergartedn program for lower SES children have substantial effects on IQ but this generally fades by late elementary school, perhaps because the environment of children doesn't remain enriched.
-Whether or not high quality intervention programs have sustained effects on IQ, the effects on academic achievement and life outcomes can be very substantial.
i.e. intensive program: the perry school project.
Children in the Milwaukee Project (Garber, 1988) program had an average IQ 10 points higher than those of controls when they were adolescents.
-By adulthood, individuals who'd participated in early interventions were about 1/2 as likely to have repeated a grade in school or to have been assigned to special education classes and were far more likely to have completed high school, attend college and own a home. - 15Does aerobic exercise effect any aspect of intelligence/ IQ? What does the evidence say about the size of the effects and the group affected.A meta- analysis of a large no. of studies has shown that aerobic exercise at least for the elderly is very important for maintain IQ, esp. for executive functions such as planning, inhibition and scheduling of mental procedures. (Colcombe and Kramer)
-The effect of the exercise on these functions is more than .5 SD for the elderly (more for the past age of 65 than those younger)
its possible to begin cardio later on (7th decade in life) and still substantially reduce the likelihood of alzheimers - 16Which countries show the smallest and largest Flynn effects? why? Which type of ability shows the largest Flynn effect?the Flynn effect= substantial and long sustained increase in both fluid and crystallised intelligence test scores measure world wide since 1930.
- For nations that were fully modern by the beginning on the 20thc., IQ gains have been on order of 3 points per decade.
-nations that have recently started to modernise i.e. Kenya show a rise in IQ gains, Brasil shows a gain of 3 pts per decade from 1930-2002.
Causes of IQ gains are still debated, could be:
- better nutrition over time, better resources.
IQ gains: The gains of British children on Raven’s Progressive Matrices were at least as high from 1980 to 2008 as they were from 1943 to 1980 (Flynn, 2009a). Both American children (as measured by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, or WISC, 1989–2002) and adults (WAIS, 1995–2006) are gaining at their historic rate of 3 points per decade (Flynn, 2009b, 2009c).
gains on tests generally considered to measure fluid intelligence showed substantially greater gains (18 points in IQ-equivalence terms) than Gc - 17The article suggest that better nutrition is NOT likely to be the reason for the Flynn effect. What logical argument does the article propose for this? What sources of evidence supports this?The causes of IQ gains are still debated. Lynn (1989) has proposed that they are due to improvements in nutri- tion. In the developed world, better nutrition was probably a factor before 1950, but probably not since. The nutrition hypothesis posits greater IQ gains in the lower half of the IQ distribution than the upper half because one would assume that even in the past the upper classes were well fed, whereas the nutritional deficiencies of the lower classes have gradually diminished.
british trends are quite incompatible with the nutrition hypothesis. They do not show the IQ gap between the top and bottom halves reducing over time. Differences were large on the eve of the Great Depression, contracted from 1940 to 1942, expanded from 1964 to 1971, contracted from 1972 to 1977, and have expanded ever since (Flynn, 2009a, 2009c). - 18Subtests of the Weschler scales show different susceptibility to the 'flynn effect'. which subtests have the largest and smallest gains and which of these are consistent across the lifespan.largest gains:
-similarities subtest - imply skills in categorisation have increased.
- performance subtests--> enhanced ability to solve problems on the spot.
- Comprehension --> ability to comprehend how the concrete world is organise.
- Information --> Gains over 8 points for adults, 2 for children. gains reflect the influence of the expansion of tertiary education.
Smallest gains:
- vocab--> only increased by 1 SD in adults, very trivally in children.
-Arithmetic --> small gains for adults and children perhaps because education in recent decades hasn't increased.
Consistent across the lifespan:
-Comprehension - 19Which type of intelligence test scores are associated with the pre-frontal cortex? Give 2 forms of evidence for this association.Association between activity in pre- frontal cortex (PFC) and performance on fluid reasoning and executive functioning and WM tests.
-Individuals with damage to pre-frontal cortex show impairment on reasoning tasks such as: Ravens progressive matrices.
(Duncan, Burgess, Emselie)
- Crystallised intelligence which uses well learned and accumulated activities shows little effect when PFC is damaged (Waltz et al). - 20What is the neural efficiency hypothesis? How does natural efficiency differ across intelligence levels and task difficulties?Individuals with higher ability exhibit greater efficiency at a neural level; high ability individuals are able to solve simple and moderately difficult problems, move quickly and with less cortical activity particularly in pre-frontal cortex than lower ability individuals.
-Relations between neural activity and intelligence are related to task difficulty in a manner characterised by an inverted U shape.
- When task difficulty was matched to ability level, individuals with high fluid intelligence exhibited increased brain activity relative to individuals with low fluid intelligence.
-fMRI studies have found that high ability individuals are more efficient problem solvers at a neural level and that as task difficulty increases, high ability individuals exhibit increasing neural activity in PFC whereas lower ability individuals exhibit decreasing activities. - 21What is the neural efficiency hypothesis? How does neural efficiency differ across intelligence across and task difficulty.Individuals with higher ability exhibit greater efficiency at a neural level; high ability individuals are able to solve simple and moderately difficult problems, move quickly and with less cortical activity particularly in pre-frontal cortex than lower ability individuals.
-Relations between neural activity and intelligence are related to task difficulty in a manner characterised by an inverted U shape.
- When task difficulty was matched to ability level, individuals with high fluid intelligence exhibited increased brain activity relative to individuals with low fluid intelligence.
-fMRI studies have found that high ability individuals are more efficient problem solvers at a neural level and that as task difficulty increases, high ability individuals exhibit increasing neural activity in PFC whereas lower ability individuals exhibit decreasing activities. - 22Identify and describe 3 pieces of evidence in favour of a reciprocal relationship between intellectual functioning and brain morphologyExercise of particular skills increases the size of particular areas of the brain.
- The hippocampuse encourages navigation in a 3D space i.e. London taxi drivers have hippocampi that is enlarged in proportion to the amount of time they've been on the job (Maguire et al)
-The process of learning to juggle over 3mnth period increases the size of bray matter in the mid temporal areas (Draganski) The fray matter growth was correlated with increased juggling ability.. 3mnth later after ceasing to juggle, size of gray matter had reduced.
- three months of playing visuo sptial game, Tetris, resulted in the increases in cortical thickness in 2 regions and also in functional changes (Haier, Karama et al) - 23What are the sex differences on overall IQ and on fluid reasoning, visuo spatial, verbal and quantitative abilities?- Jensen argued that there were no sex differences in the mean level of intelligence of variability of intelligence.
Visuo spatial --> adv. for males abilities. However training of both sexes can reduce the difference.
Verbal and Percpetual tasks --> Women excel at i.e. large adv. favouring girls in writing achievement.
quantitative abilities --> mean differences on tests of quantitative achievement tend to be small/ non existent when measured with standardised tests that reflect the mathematics content taught in school. - 24Name at least 2 sources of evidence that the male adv. on visuo spatial skills is partly social rather than biological in origin.i.e. when F and M college students were trained with computer games that required the use of spatial visualisation, this intervention reduced the gap between M and F performance (Feng, Spence and Pratt).
-Likewise when M and F college students were primed with positive stereotypes before taking an object rotation class, the gender gap in performance was nearly eliminated. (Mc- Glone & Aronson, 2006). - 25What are the sex differences in brain size and are these linked to gender differences in IQ? Why/ why not?Overall f and m brains are similar in organisation and structure but closer inspection shows that most areas are sexually dimorphic.
-The m brain is on average 8-14% larger than the f brain, a difference that is comparable to the sex difference of other organs.
-Overall brain size doesn't passably account for differences in aspects of intelligence because all areas of the brain are not equally important for cogn. functioning.
F have more grey matter , M more white matter --> M and F still achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting theres no singular underlying neuro-anatomical structure that general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may cause equivalent intellectual performance. - 26What is the achievement gap between white and asian americans and what mechanism does the article propose for the gap?Coleman report 1966:
- Asian Americans actually have the same mean IQ as white Amercians but scored 1/3 of an SD higher on the SAT than white Americans. --> SAT scores represent motivational differences quite possibly.
-Chinese Americans in class of 1966 attains occupations of professional, managerial or technical nature at a rate of 62% higher than white Americans.
-Difference between White and Asians is that Asians come from a Confucian background which teaches intelligence as a matter of hard work. If White's were as motivated and hard working they'd achieve the same results. - 27Give brief descriptions of the 'individual multiplier' and 'social multiplier' that the paper proposes as explanations of the Flynn effect.Individual multiplier: Environmental factors that twins have in common are masked and their common genes get all the credit for their highly similar IQs.
- doesn't really matter that they were raised in separate places, if their genetics are strong they'll still do well academically even in different environments.
Social Multiplier: Thanks to the evolving environment, huge cogn. gained were caused with no assistance from genetics, rather environment. - 28Cattell's investment hypothesis is that fluid intelligence should predict the development of crystallised intelligence. What is the empirical evidence that Gf can predict the development of Gc?Fluid intelligence = ability to solve new problems on the spot and the ability to learn new things
Crystallised= the knowledge that one accumulated by applying ones ability in different areas.
Someone who always had more fluid g would also have more crystallized g, but crystallized g could grow while fluid g remained constant, and if fluid g began to fall, crystallized g could still continue to rise as long as the rate of building crystallized g surpassed the rate at which it was lost. Thus, there would be no reason to expect tests of crystallized and fluid abilities to rise and decline at the same time or rate.
McArdle and colleagues (2000) found that fluid ability does not predict crystallized ability (operationalized as vocabulary) in individuals, but memory does, and memory is somewhat influenced by fluid ability. Ferrer and McArdle (2004) used a broader set of measures of crystal- lized ability. Like McArdle et al. (2000), they found no evidence that fluid abilities predict changes in vocabulary in individuals, but they did find that fluid ability predicted academic - 29Name 2 ways that delay of gratification has been operationalised. What does delay of gratification predict?Self regulating behaviours:
i.e. being able to wait in line, inhibiting the desire to call out in class.
Delay of gratification predicts that:
1. it contributes to life outdoes
2. contributes to a higher IQ.
i,e, Mischel et al study of kids tempted by marshmallows, those who delayed the instant gratification of eating one marshmallow can get 2 later on = found to have scored higher on SAT scores. - 30Name at least 3 forms of evidence that stress levels can effect intelligencechronic, continuous stress can be considered as 'toxic' stress is injurious over time to organ systems, including the brain.
McEwen 2000: high levels of stress damage the neural circuity of pre frontal cortex and hippocampus which are necessary for regulating attention, short term and long term memory and working memory.
Blair and Razza and Ferrer et al. :
- low levels of stress is important for self regulation and early learning in school - 31Name at least 3 valued life outcomes that IQ scores are known to predict- how well you do on your education
How much $ u make
Living well off.
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- Karteikarten am COGQUIZ, erstellt von a.milios am 27/10/2014.
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