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Anatomy and physiology basics: systems, homeostasis, chemistry

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  1. 1AnatomyThe study of structure
  2. 2Subdivisions of anatomy1) Gross or macroscopic (IE regional, surface, and systemic)
    2) Microscopic (IE cytology and histology)
  3. 3PhysiologyThe study of function at many levels
  4. 4Subdivisions of physiologybased on organ systems (IE renal system, cardiovascular physiology, nervous system, etc)
  5. 5Principle of ComplementarityAnatomy and Physiology are inseparable; function always reflects structure
  6. 6The hierarchy of structural organizationOrganism
    Organ System
    Organ
    Tissue
    Cell
    Organelle
    Macromolecule
    Molecule
    Atom
  7. 7Integumentary SystemForms the external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous (pain,pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands
  8. 8Skeletal SystemProtects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
  9. 9Muscular SystemAllows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and produces heat
  10. 10Nervous SystemAs the fast-acting control system of the body it responds to interal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
  11. 11Endocrine SystemGlands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
  12. 12Cardiovascular SystemBlood vessel transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood
  13. 13Lymphatic System/ImmunityPicks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body
  14. 14Respiratory SystemKeeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
  15. 15Digestive SystemBreaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
  16. 16Urinary SystemEliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood
  17. 17Male Reproductive SystemOverall function is production of offspring, Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
  18. 18Female Reproductive SystemOverall function is offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serves as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
  19. 19HomeostasisMaintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes; a dynamic state of equilibrium
  20. 20Homeostatic Control MechanismsInvolve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables); Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
  21. 21Components of a control mechanismReceptor, Control Center, and effector
  22. 22Receptor (sensor)Monitors the environment, responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
  23. 23Control CenterDetermines the set points at which the variable is maintained, receives input from receptor, and determines appropriate response
  24. 24EffectorReceives output from control center, provides the means to respond, and response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
  25. 25Negative FeedbackThe response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus; regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism) and a regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)
  26. 26Negative Feedback: Regulation of blood volume by ADHReceptors sense decreased blood volume, Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiurectic hormone (ADH); ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return to more water to the blood (water retention by body)
  27. 27Positive FeedbackThe response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus; may exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect; usually controls infrequent events (i.e. enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin; platelet plug formation and blood clotting)
  28. 28Homeostatic ImbalanceDisturbance of homeostasis: Increases risk of disease, contributes to changes associated with aging, may allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (Ie heart failure)
  29. 29MatterAnything that has mass and occupies space
  30. 30States of matterSolid, Liquid, and Gas
  31. 31SolidDefinite shape and volume
  32. 32Liquiddefinite volume, changeable
  33. 33Gaschangeable shape and volume
  34. 34EnergyCapacity to do work or put matter into motion
  35. 35Types of energyKinetic and Potential
  36. 36KineticEnergy in action
  37. 37Potentialstored (inactive) energy
  38. 38Rules of energyEnergy may be converted from one form to another; conversion is inefficient because some energy is "lost" as heat
  39. 39AtomsUnique building blocks for each element
  40. 40Atomic SymbolOne or two letter chemical shorthand for each element
  41. 41About 96% of body massOxygen (O), Carbon (C ), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N)
  42. 42About 3.9% of body massCalcium (Ca), Phoshorus (P ), Potassium(K), Sulfur (S), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Iodine (I), and Iron (Fe)
  43. 43Trace Elements <0.01% of body massparts of enzymes, e.g. chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), and Zinc (Zn)
  44. 44Atomic StructureDetermined by numbers of subatomic particles, nucleus consists of neutrons and protons, protons (positively charged; mass=1 amu), neutrons (no charge; mass= 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
  45. 45ElectronsOrbit nucleus, equal in number to protons in atom, negatively charged, 1/2000 the mass of a proton (O amu)
  46. 46Identifying elementsAtoms of different elements contain different numbers of subatomic particles
  47. 47Atomic Numbernumber of protons in nucleus
  48. 48Mass Number (Atomic Mass)Mass of the protons and neutrons
  49. 49Mass numbers of atoms of an element might varyIsotopes are structural variations of elements that differ in the number of neutrons they contain
  50. 50RadioisotopesValuable tools for biological research and medicine; cause damage to living tissue: useful against localized cancers; radon from uranium decay causes lung cancer
  51. 51MoleculeTwo or more atoms bonded together
  52. 52CompoundTwo or more different kinds of atoms bonded together
  53. 53Three Types of MixturesSolutions, Colloids, Suspensions
  54. 54SolutionsHomogeneous Mixtures; usually transparent
  55. 55SolventPresent in greatest amount, usually a liquid
  56. 56SolutePresent in smaller amounts
  57. 57Colloids (Emulsions)Heterogeneous translucent mixtures (IE cytosol); large solute particles that do not settle out; undergo sol-gel transformations
  58. 58SuspensionsHeterogeneous mixtures (i.e. blood); large visible solutes tend to settle out
  59. 59MixturesNo chemical bonding between components; can be separated physically, such as by straining or filtering, heterogenous or Homogeneous
  60. 60CompoundsCan be separated only by breaking bonds; all are homogeneous
  61. 61Chemical BondsElectrons occupy up to seven electron shells (energy levels) around nucleus
  62. 62Octet RuleExcept for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their outermost energy level (Valance shell)
  63. 63Chemically Inert ElementsStable and unreative, outermost energy level fully occupied or contains eight electrons
  64. 64Chemically Reactive ElementsOutermost energy level not fully occupied by electrons; tend to gain, lose, or share electrons (form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability
  65. 65Ionic BondsIons are formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms; attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic bond
  66. 66Anionsnegative charge; have gained one or more electrons
  67. 67CationsPositive Charge; Have lost one or more electrons
  68. 68Covalent BondsFormed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons; allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time
  69. 69Covalent Bonds (II)Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal; equal sharing produces electrically balanced non polar molecules
  70. 70Covalent Bonds (III)Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces polar molecules
  71. 71Electronegativeatoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are electronegative
  72. 72ElectropositiveAtoms with one or two valence shell electrons are electropositive
  73. 73Hydrogen BondsAttractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule; common between dipoles such as water; also acts as intramolecular bonds, holding a large molecule in a 3D shape
  74. 74Chemical ReactionsOccur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken; represented as chemical equations
  75. 75Synthesis ReactionsA+B ---> AB
    Always involve bond formation
    Anabolic
  76. 76Decomposition ReactionsAB ----> A+B
    Reverse Synthesis Reactions
    Involve breaking of bonds
    Catabolic
  77. 77Chemical ReactionsAll chemical reactions are either exergonic or endergonic
  78. 78Exergonic ReactionsRelease Energy
    IE Catabolic Reactions
  79. 79Endergonic ReactionsProducts contain more potential energy than did reactants
    IE Anabolic Reactions
  80. 80Inorganic CompoundsWater, Salts, and many acids and bases
  81. 81Organic CompoundsCarbs, Fats, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids, Contains carbon and hydrogen, usually large and are covalently bonded
  82. 82Water60-80% of the volume in living cells; most important inorganic compound in living organisms because of its properties
  83. 83Properties of WaterHigh Heat Capacity (absorbs and releases heat w/little temp change; prevents sudden temp changes) High Heat of Vaporization (Evaporation requires large amnts of heat; useful cooling mechanism) Polar Solvent Properties (Dissolves and dissociates ionic substances; body's major transport medium) Reactiviy (a necessary part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions) Cushioning (protects certain organs from physical trauma i.e. cerebrospinal fluid)
  84. 84Acids and BasesBoth are electrolytes; Acids are proton (hydrogen ion) donors (release H+ in a solution) while bases are proton acceptors (take up H+ from solution)
  85. 85pHThe negative logarithm of H+ in moles per liter; pH of pure water is 7; all neutral solutions have a pH of 7
  86. 86Acid-Base HomeostasispH change interferes with cell function and may damage living tissue; slight change in pH can be fatal; pH is regulated by kidneys, lung, and buffers
  87. 87BuffersMixture of compounds that resist pH changes; convert strong (completely dissociated) acids or bases into weak (slightly dissociated) ones
  88. 88SaltsIonic compounds that dissociate in water; contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-; Ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in solution; Ions play specialized roles in body functions
  89. 89Organic CompoundsUnique to living systems including carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids; many are polymers-chains of similar units (monomers of building blocks); they are synthesized by dehydration synthesis, broken down by hydrolysis reactions
  90. 90CarbohydratesSugars and starches; contain C,H, and O; three classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides; functions: major source of cellular fuel, structural molecules
  91. 91Monosaccaridessimple sugars containing three to seven C atoms
  92. 92Disaccharidesdouble sugars; too large to pass through cell membranes
  93. 93Polysaccharidespolymers of simple sugars (i.e. starch and glycogen); not very soluble
  94. 94LipidsContain C,H, O and sometimes P; insoluble in water; main types: neutral fats or triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids
  95. 95TriglyceridesNeutral fats- solid fats and liquid oils; composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule; main functions: energy storage, insulation, and protection
  96. 96Saturated Fatty Acidssingle bonds between C atoms; maximum number of H; solid animal fats (i.e. butter)
  97. 97Unsaturated Fatty Acidsone or more double bonds between C atoms; reduced number of H atoms (i.e. plant oils, olive oil)
  98. 98Phospholipidsmodified trigylcerides (glycerol + two fatty acids and a phosphorus containing group); "head" and "tail" regions have different properties; important in cell membrane structure
  99. 99Steroidssteroids; interlocking four-ring structure; cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts
  100. 100EicosanoidsMany different ones; derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic acid) in cell membranes; prostaglandins
  101. 101Proteinspolymers of amino acids (20 types); joined by peptide bonds; contain C,H,O,N and sometimes S and P
  102. 102Primary Structure of a Proteinthe primary structure of any protein is simply its sequence of amino acids; this sequence determines everything else about the proteins final shape
  103. 103Secondary Structure of ProteinsStructural motifs, such as the corkscrew- like alpha helix, beta pleated sheets, and the less organized "random coils" are parts of many polypeptid chains, forming their secondary structure
  104. 104Tertiary StructureThese motifs may persist through a set of larger- scale turns that make up the tertiary structure of the molecule
  105. 105Quaternary StructureSeveral polypeptide chains may be linked together in a given protein, in this case hemoglobin, with their configuration forming its quaternary structure
  106. 106Fibrous (structural) proteinsstrandlike, water insoluble, and stable
    Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain contractile fibers
  107. 107Globular (functional) proteinscompact, spherical, water-soluble and sensitive to environmental changes; specific functional regions (active sites)
    Examples: antibodies, hormones, molecular chaperones, and enzymes
  108. 108Enzymesbiological catalysts; lower the activation energy, increase the speed of a reaction (millions of reactions per minute)
  109. 109Nucleic AcidsDNA and RNA (largest molecules in body); contain C, H, O, N and P; building block = nucleotide, composed of N- containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
  110. 110DNAhereditary material/genetic material
    double stranded helical molecule in the cell nucleus
    provides instructions for protein synthesis
    replicated before cell division, ensuring genetic continuity
  111. 111RNAsingle stranded molecule mostly active outside the nucleus
    Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders of protein synthesis (messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA)
  112. 112ATPadenosine containing RNA nucleotide with two additional phosphate groups; energy currency system in the body
  113. 113Cell TheoryThe cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life
    Functions of an organism depend on individual and collective cell functions
    Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific subcellular structures
    Continuity of life has a cellular basis
  114. 114Generalized CellThere are over 200 different types of human cells
    Types differ in size, shape, subcellular components, and functions
    Still all cells have some common structures and functions
    Human cells have three basic parts:
    -Plasma membrane-Flexible outer boundary
    -Cytoplasm-intracellular fluid containing organelles
    -Nucleus- control center
  115. 115Plasma MembraneBimolecular layer of lipids and proteins in a constantly changing fluid mosaic
    Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
    Separates intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)
    -Interstitial Fluid (IF)= ECF that surrounds cells
  116. 116Membrane Lipids75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer)
    >phosphate heads:polar and hydrophilic
    >Fatty acid tails: non polar and hydrophobic
    5% glycolipids
    >lipids with polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface
    20% cholesterol
    >increases membrane stability and fluidity
  117. 117Lipid Rafts20% of the outer membrane surface
    Contain phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol
    May function as stable platforms for cell-signaling molecules
  118. 118Integral ProteinsFirmly inserted into the membrane (most are transmembrane)
    Functions: transport proteins (channels and carriers), enzymes, or receptors
  119. 119Peripheral ProteinsLoosely attached to integral proteins
    Functions: enzymes, motor proteins, cell-to-cell links, provide support on intracellular surface, and form part of glycocalyx
  120. 120Functions of Membrane Proteins1)Transport
    2) Receptors for signal transduction
    3) Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
    4)Enzymatic Activity
    5)Intercellular Joining
    6) Cell-to-Cell Recognition
  121. 121Three Types of Membrane JunctionsTight Junction, Desmosome, and Gap Junction
  122. 122Tight JunctionPrevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells
  123. 123Desmosome"Rivets" or "spot-welds" that anchor cells together
  124. 124Gap JunctionTransmembrane proteins form pores that allow small molecules to pass from cell to cell
  125. 125Membrane TransportPlasma membranes are selectively permeable
    some molecules easily pass through the membrane; others do not
  126. 126Types of Membrane TransportPassive and Active
  127. 127Passive ProcessNo cellular energy (ATP) required
    Substance moves down its concentration gradient
  128. 128Active ProcessEnergy (ATP) required
    Occurs only in living cell membranes
  129. 129Passive ProcessesSimple Diffusion
    Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
    Channel-Mediated Diffusion
    Osmosis
  130. 130Simple DiffusionNonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer
  131. 131Facilitated DiffusionCertain lipophobic molecules (ie glucose, amino acids, and ions) use carrier proteins or channel proteins, both of which:
    >exhibit specificty (selectivity)
    >Are saturable; rate is determined by number of carriers or channels
    >Can be regulated in terms of activity and quantity
  132. 132Facilitated Diffusion using carrier proteinsTransmembrane integral proteins transport specific polar molecules (Ie sugars and amino acids)
    Binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier
  133. 133Facilitated Diffusion using channel proteinsAqueous channels formed by transmembrane proteins selectively transport ions or water
    Two types:
    >Leakage channels (always open)
    >Gated channels (controlled by chemical or electrical signals)
  134. 134OsmosisMovement of solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane
    Water diffuses through plasma membrane
    >through the lipid bilayer
    >through water channels called aqua porins (AQPs)
  135. 135Osmosis (II)Water concentration is determined by solute concentration bc solute particles displace water molecules
    When solutions of different osmolarity (the measure of total concentration of solute particles) are separated by a membrane, osmosis occurs until equilibrium is reached
  136. 136TonicityThe ability of a solution to cause a cell to shrink or swell
  137. 137IsotonicA solution with the same solute concentration as that of the cytosol
  138. 138HypertonicA solution having greater solute concentration than that of the cytosol
  139. 139HypotonicA solution having lesser solute concentration that that o the cytosol
  140. 140CytoplasmLocated between plasma membrane and nucleus
  141. 141CytosolWater with solutes (proteins, salts, sugars, etc)
  142. 142Cytoplasmic OrganellesMetabolic machinery of cell
  143. 143InclusionsGranules of glycogen or pigments, lipid droplets, vacuoles, and crystals
  144. 144Membranous Cytoplasmic OrganellesMitochondria, Peroxisomes, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and Golgi Apparatus
  145. 145Nonmembranous Cytoplasmic OrganellesCytoskeleton, Centrioles, and Ribosomes
  146. 146MitochondriaDouble-membrane structure with shelflike cristae
    Provide most of cell's ATP via aerobic cellular respiration
    Contian their own DNA and RNA
  147. 147RibosomesGranules containing protein and rRNA
    SIte of protein synthesis
    Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins
    Membrane-bound ribosomes (on rough ER) synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes or exported from the cell
  148. 148Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing cisternae
    Continuous with nuclear membrane
    Two Varities: Rough ER and Smooth ER
  149. 149Rough ERExternal Surface studded with ribosomes
    Manufactures all secreted proteins
    Synthesizies membrane integral proteins and phospholipids
  150. 150Smooth ERTubules arranged in a looping network
    Functions:
    >In the liver-lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of glycogen, and along with kidneys detox of drugs, pesticides, and carcinogens
    >synthesis of steroid based hormones
    >In intestinal cells-absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
    >In skeletal and cardiac muscle- storage and release of calcium
  151. 151Golgi ApparatusStacked and flattened membranous stacks
    Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids
    Tranport vessels from ER fuse with convex cis face of GA
    Proteins then pass through GA to trans face
    Seretory vesicles leave trans face of Golgi stack and move to designated parts of cell
  152. 152Lysosomesspherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolyses)
    Digest ingested bateria, viruses, and toxins
    Degrade nonfunctional organelles
    Break down and release glycogen
    Destroy cells in injured or non useful tissue (autolysis)
  153. 153PeroxisomesMembranous sacs containing powerful oxidases and catalyses
    Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
    Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)
  154. 154CytoskeletonElaborated series of rods throughout cytosol: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
  155. 155Centrosome"cell center" near nucleus
    generates microtubules; organizes mitotic spindle
    contains centrioles: small tube formed by microtubules
  156. 156Cilia and FlagellaWhiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of certain cells
    Contain microtubules and motor molecules
    Cilia move substances across cell surfaces
    Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of sperm)
  157. 157NucleusGenetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
    Responds to signals and dictates kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized
    Most cells are uninucleate
    Red blood cells are a nucleate
    Skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells, and some liver cells are multinucleate
  158. 158Nuclear EnvelopeDouble-membrane barrier containing pores
    Outer layer is continuous with rough ER and bears ribosomes
    Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of nucleus
  159. 159NucleolusDark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus
    Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly
  160. 160TissuesFormed by a group of cells performing similar functions
  161. 161Four primary types of tissuesEpithelium
    Connective
    Muscular
    Nervous
  162. 162HistologyThe study of tissues
  163. 163Nervous Tissueinternal communication
    Loc: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves
  164. 164Muscle TissueContracts to cause movement
    Loc: Muscles attached to bones(skeletal)
    Muscles of heart (cardiac)
    Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
  165. 165Epithelial TissueForms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
    Loc: skin surface (epidermis)
    Lining of the GI tract organs and other hollow organs
  166. 166Connective Tissuesupports, protects, binds other tissues together
    Loc: bones, tendons, and fat and other soft padding tissue
  167. 167SkinConsists of three major regions (2 layers in the skin and one underneath these layers)
  168. 168Layers of skinEpidermis-superficial region
    Dermis-middle region
    >Hypodermis (superficial fascia)-deepest region
    ^subcutaneous layer deep to skin (not technically part of skin); mostly adipose tissue
  169. 169EpidermisKeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
  170. 170Cells of epidermisKeratinocytes, Melanocytes, Epidermal Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells, and Tacticel (Merkel) Cells
  171. 171KeratinocytesProduce fibrous protein keratin
  172. 172Melanocytes10-25% of cells in lower epidermis
    Produce pigment melanin
  173. 173Epidermal Dendritic (Langerhans) CellsMacrophages that help activate immune system
  174. 174Tactile (Merkel) CellsTouch receptors
  175. 175DermisStrong, Flexible Connective Tissue
    Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells
    2 Layers: Papillary and Reticular
  176. 176Papillary Layer of DermisAreolar Connective Tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessel
    Dermal Papillae contain:
    -Capillary Loops
    -Meissner's Corpuscles
    -Free nerve endings
  177. 177Reticular-80% of the thickness of dermis
    Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency
    Elastic Fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
  178. 178Skin ColorThree pigments contribute to skin color:
    Melanin, Carotene, and Hemaglobin
  179. 179MelaninYellow to reddish-brown to black, responsible for dark skin colors
    Produced in melanocytes; migrates to keratinocytes where it forms "pigment shields" for nuclei
    Freckles and pigmented moles
    ^Local Accumulations of melanin
  180. 180CaroteneYellow to orange most obvious in the palms and soles
  181. 181HemoglobinResponsible for the pinkish hue of skin
  182. 182Appendages of the skinDerivatives of the Epidermis
    -Sweat glands
    -Oil glands
    -Hairs and hair follicles
    -Nails
  183. 183Sweat GlandsTwo main types of sweat (sudiferous) glands:
    Eccrine and Apocrine
  184. 184Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glandsAbundant on palms, soles and forehead
    -Sweat: 99% water, NaCL, Vitamin C, antibodies, dermeiden, metabolic wastes
    -Ducts connect to pores
    -Function in thermoregulation
  185. 185Apocrine sweat glandsConfined to axillary and anogenital areas
    -Sebum: sweat+fatty substaces and proteins
    -Ducts connect to hair follicles
    -Functional from puberty onward(as sexual scent glands)
    -Specialized apocrine glands
    -Ceruminous glands-in external ear canal; secrete cerumen
    -Mammary Glands
  186. 186Sebaceous (oil) glandsWidely distributed
    Most develop from hair follicles
    Become active at puberty
    Sebum:
    -Oily holocrine secretion
    -Bactericidial
    -Softens hair and skin
  187. 187HairFunctions: Alerting the body to presence of any objects on the skin, Guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss and sunlight
    Distrubution: Entire surface except palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia
  188. 188Hair (cont.)Consists of dead keratinized cells
    Contains hard keratin; more durable than soft keratin of skin
    Hair pigments: melanins( yellow, rust brown, black)
    >Gray/white hair: decreased melanin production, increased air bubbles in shaft
  189. 189Hair FollicleExtends from the dermis to the epidermal surface
    Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath
    Hair bulb: expanded deep end
    Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus)
    >sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb which are stimulated by bending a hair
    Arrector Pili
    >Smooth muscle attached to follicle; responsible for "goose bumps"
  190. 190Alopeciahair thinning in both sexes after age 40
  191. 191True (Frank) BaldnessGenetically determined and sex-influences condition
    Male pattern baldness is caused by follicular response to DHT
  192. 192Functions of the Integumentary System1)Protection-Physical and Chemical Barriers
    2) Body Temperature Regulation
    3) Cutaneous Sensations- Temperature, Touch, and Pain
    4) Metabolic Functions-synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase; chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones
    5) Blood Reservoir-up tp 5% of body's blood volume
    6) Excretion-nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat
  193. 193Skin CancerMost skin tumors are benign (do not metastasize)
    Risk Factors: Overexposure to UV radiation, Frequent irritation of the skin
    Some skin lotions contain enzymes in liposomes that can fix damaged DNA
  194. 194Three Major Types of Skin CancerBasal Cell Carcinoma (Least malignant, most common)
    Squamous Cell Carcinoma (Second most common)
    Melanoma (Most dangerous)
  195. 195MelanomaInvolves melanocytes, Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy, treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy
  196. 196BurnsHeat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals Lead to burn (tissue damage, denatured proteins, cell death)
    Immediate threat: dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock
  197. 197First Degree BurnEpidermal Damage only
    Localized redness, edema (Swelling) and pain
  198. 198Second Degree BurnEpidermal and upper dermal damage
    Blisters appear
  199. 199Third Degree BurnEntire thickness of skin damaged
    Gray white, cherry red, or black
    No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed)
    Skin grafting usually necessary
  200. 200Fetal Developmental AspectsEctoderm ----> Epidermis
    Mesoderm-----> Dermis and Hypodermis
    Lanugo Coat: covering of delicate hairs in 5th and 6th month
    Vernix Caseosa: sebaceous gland secretion; protects skin of fetus
  201. 201Adolescent to Adult Developmental AspectsSebaceous gland activity increases
    Effects of cumulative environmental assaults show after age 30
    Scaling and dermatitis become more common
  202. 202Old Age Developmental AspectsEpidermal replacement slows, skin becomes thin,dry, and itchy
    Subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease, leading to cold intolerance and wrinkles
    Increased risk of cancer due to decreased numbers of melanocytes and dendritic cells
  203. 203Two main groups of the bones of the skeleton by locationAxial and Appendicular
  204. 204Long BonesLonger than they are wide
  205. 205Short BonesCube-shaped bones (in wrist and ankle)
    Sesamoid Bones (within tendons, IE patella)
  206. 206Flat BonesThin, flat, slightly curved
  207. 207Irregular BonesComplicated Shapes
  208. 208Functions of BonesSupport-for the body and soft organs
    Protection-For brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
    Movement- levers for muscle action
    Storage- minerals (calcium and phosphorus) and growth factors
    Blood Cell Formation (Hematopoiesis) in marrow cavities
  209. 209Bone MarkingsBulges, depressions, and holes serve as:
    Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons
    Joint surfaces
    Conduits for blood vessels and nerves
  210. 210TuberosityRounded projection
  211. 211Crestnarrow, prominent ridge
  212. 212Trochanterlarge, blunt, irregular surface
  213. 213LineNarrow ridge of bone
  214. 214TubercleSmall rounded projection
  215. 215EpicondyleRaised area above a condyle
  216. 216Spinesharp, slender projection
  217. 217ProcessAny bony prominence
  218. 218HeadBony expansion carried on a narrow neck
  219. 219FacetSmooth, nearly flat articular surface
  220. 220CondyleRounded articular projection
  221. 221RamusArmlike Bar
  222. 222MeatusCanal-like passageway
  223. 223SinusCavity within a bone
  224. 224FossaShallow, basin like depression
  225. 225GrooveFurrow
  226. 226FissureNarrow, slitlike opening
  227. 227ForamenRound or oval opening through a bone
  228. 228Compact BoneDense outer layer
  229. 229Spongy (Cancellous) boneHoneycomb of trabeculae
  230. 230Diaphysis (shaft)Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity
    Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)
  231. 231EpiphysesExpanded Ends
    Spongy bone interior
    Epiphyseal Line (remnant of growth plate)
  232. 232PeriosteumOuter Fibrous Layer
    Inner Osteogenic Layer
    >Osteoblasts (Bone forming cells)
    >Osteoclasts (Bone destroying cells)
    >Osteogenic (Stem cells)
    Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina
    Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey's fibers
  233. 233EndosteumDelicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
    Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
  234. 234Location of Hematopoietic TissueRed Marrow Cavities of Adults
    >Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus
    >Trabecular cavities of he dipole (spongy bone) of flat bones
    Red Marrow of Newborn Infants
    >Medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone
  235. 235Osteogenic (Oteoprogenitor) CellsStem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts
  236. 236OsteoblastsBone-forming cells
  237. 237OsteocytesMature bone cells
  238. 238Osteoclastscells that breka down (resorb) bone matrix
  239. 239Compact BoneHaversian system or osteon- structural unit of bone; formed by:
    >Lamellae
    -Weight-bearing
    -Column-like matrix tubes
    >Central (Haversian) canal
    -Contains blood vessels and nerves
  240. 240Compact Bone (cont.)Perforating (Volkmann's) Canals
    >At right angles to the central canal
    >Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal
    Lacunae- small cavities that contain osteocytes
    Canaliculi-hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
  241. 241Spongy BoneTrabeculae
    >Align along lines of stress
    >No osteons
    >Contain Irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canliculi
    >Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
  242. 242Organic BoneOsteogenic Cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts
    Osteoid- organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts
    >Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)
    >Collagen Fibers
    -Provide tensile strength and flexibility
  243. 243Inorganic BoneHydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
    >65% of bone by mass
    >Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
    >Respsonsible for hardness and resistance to compression
  244. 244Osteogenesis (Ossification)Bone tissue formation
  245. 245Stages of Bone DevelopmentBone formation- begins in the 2nd month of development
    Postnatal Bone Growth-Until early adulthood
    Bone modeling and repair- Lifelong
  246. 246Intramembranous OssificationMembrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
    Forms flat bones (Ie clavicles and cranial bones)
  247. 247Endochondral OssificationCartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
    Forms most of the rest of the skeleton
  248. 248Endochondral OssificationUses hyaline cartilage models
    Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
  249. 249Interstitial GrowthIncreases the length of long bones
  250. 250Appositional GrowthIncrease thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces
  251. 251Hormonal Regulation of Bone GrowthGrowth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity
    Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth hormone
    Testosteron and estrogens (at puberty)
    >promotes adolescent growth spurts
    >end growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
  252. 252Bone ResorptionOsteoclasts Secrete
    >Lysosomal Enzymes (digest organic matrix)
    >Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)
    Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood
  253. 253What controls continual remodeling of bone?Hormonal Mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood
  254. 254Calcium is necessary for:Trasmission of nerve impulses
    Muscle contraction
    Blood coagulation
    Secretion by glands and nerve cells
    Cell division
  255. 255Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)
    low blood ca2+ levels lead to parathyroid glands release PTH which leads to PTH stimulates osteoclast to degrade bone matrix and release ca2+ which then leads to increase in blood ca2+
  256. 256Hormonal control of blood ca2+May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin
    increase in blood ca2+ levels leads t oparafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin which leads to osteoblasts deposit calcium salts which leads to a decrease in blood ca2+ levels
    Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts
  257. 257Wolff's LawA bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it
  258. 258Homeostatic ImbalancesOsteomalacia and Rickets
    >Calcium salts not deposited
    >Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities
    >Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
  259. 259OsteoporosisLoss of bone mass-bone resorption outpaces deposit
    Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture
    Risk factors: lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
  260. 260Developmental Aspects of BonesNearly all bones completely ossified by age 25
    Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade
    Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors
    In old age bone resorption predominates
  261. 261Three Types of Muscle TissueSkeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth
  262. 262Skeletal Muscle TissueAttached to bones and skin
    Striated
    Voluntary (ie conscious control)
    Powerful
  263. 263Cardiac Muscle TissueOnly in the heart
    Striated
    Involuntary
  264. 264Smooth Muscle TissueIn the walls of hollow organs (i.e. stomach, urinary, bladder, and airways
    Not striated
    Involuntary
  265. 265Muscle Contraction and MovementThe skeleton and muscles interact to produce movement
    Muscles can only contract
    Anatagonistic pairs of muscles
    >Reverse actions
    > Relengthen muscles
  266. 266Excitability of IrritabilityThe ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
  267. 267ContractilityThe ability to contract forcible when stimulated
  268. 268ExtensibilityThe ability to be stretched
  269. 269ElasticityThe ability to resume the cells' original length once stretched
  270. 270Muscle Function 1Produce movement by acting on the bones of the skeleton, pumping blood, or propelling substaces though out hollow organ systems
  271. 271Muscle Function 2Aid in maintaining posture by adjusting the position of the body with respect to gravity
  272. 272Muscle Function 3Stabilize joints by exerting tension around the joint
  273. 273Muscle Function 4Generate heat as a function of their cellular metabolic processes
  274. 274Muscle fibersare cells consist of bundles of myofibrils
  275. 275Myofibrils containing overlappingThick (myosin) filaments and thin (actin) filaments
  276. 276SarcomeresThe contractile unit- the fundamental unit of muscle action
    Formed by repeating groups of thick and thin filaments
  277. 277The sliding-filament model-explains muscle contraction
    -a muscle contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filaments
    -Myosin heads of the thick filaments
    >bind ATP and
    >extend to high-energy states
    -Myosin heads then
    >Attach to binding sites on the actin molecules and
    -Pull the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere
  278. 278Motor NeuronsCarry action potentials
    That initiate muscle contractions
  279. 279The axon of a motor neuronForms synapses with a muscle at a neuromuscular junction
  280. 280Acetylcholineis released from the synaptic terminal of a motor neuron
    & diffuses to the plasma membrane of the muscle fiber
  281. 281Muscle ContractionAn action potential
    >passes along T tubules
    >into the center of the muscle fiber
    Calcium Ions
    >are released from the endoplasmic reticulum
    >initiate muscle contraction by moving regulatory proteins away from the actin binding sites
  282. 282A motor unit consists ofA neuron and the set of muscle fibers it controls
  283. 283Principles of Muscle Mechanics1) same principles apply to contraction of a single fiber and a whole muscle
    2) contraction produces tension, the force exerted on the load or object to be moved
    3) contraction does not always shorten a muscle
    4) Force and duration of contraction vary in response to stimuli of different frequencies and intensities
  284. 284Isometric Contractionno shortening, muscle tension increases but does not exceed the load
  285. 285Isotonic ContractionMuscle shortens because muscle tension exceeds the load
  286. 286Aerobic Respirationprovides most of the ATP used to power muscle movement during exercise
    -Requires a steady supply of
    >Glucose
    >oxygen
  287. 287Anaerobic ExerciseGenerates ATP faster and is much less efficient at producing ATP
  288. 288Muscle fibers can be classified as:Slow Fibers
    Intermediate Fibers
    Fast Fibers
  289. 289Types of Muscle FibersMost muscles have a combination of muscle fibers
    The proportion of fiber types can be affected by exercise
    Muscle fiber characteristics affect athletic performance
  290. 290Muscles adapt to exercise by increasingLevels of myoglobin
    Number of mitochondria
    Number of capillaries going to muscles
  291. 291All or none principleSeen on the cellular level, concerning one muscle fiber
    Stimulated the muscle fiber
    >stimulus will be strong enough to generate an action potential --> contraction (all)
    > stimulus will not be strong enough to generate an action potential ---> no contraction (none)
    No mechanism to control the gradation on the cellular level
    >influenced by number of cross bridges involed (degree of overlap)
    >availability of Ca2+ enzymes
    See gradations on the organ level
    >organ made up of many fiber types
  292. 292A muscle twitchProduced in a lab setting
    One contraction in response to a threshold stimulus
  293. 293MyographMachine that is used
  294. 294Myogram tracingRecording of the response
  295. 295Phases of a muscle twitch1) Latent Period
    Events of excitation-contraction
    2) Contraction Phase
    Interaction of myosin and actin
    3) Relaxation Phase
    Ca2+ are falling, active sites are being covered
  296. 296Muscle twitcheesTwitches of different muscles
    See different responses
    Some muscles contract fast, others more slowly
    Fast twitch and slow twitch fibers have different roles in the body
  297. 297TreppeFrequent stimulation results in a slightly stronger contraction due to more ca2+ and heat (warm up for athletes)
  298. 298Wave SummationStimulate before relaxation, subsequent contraction builds on previous
  299. 299TetanusA sustained contraction due to constant stimulation
    A normal physiological response that allows for normal use of muscles in the body
    In lab: wave summation--> incomplete tetanus --> tetanus
    <>
  300. 300Rigor MortisUpon death production of ATP stops
    Ca2+ leaks out of the SR
    Actin and myosin interact
    No ATP to detach the myosin head
    Muscles become locked in the contracted state
    Lasts 15-20 hours
  301. 301Functions of the nervous system1) Sensory Input
    2) Integration
    3)Motor Output
  302. 302Sensory InputInformation gathered by sensory receptors about internal and external changes
  303. 303IntegrationInterpretation of sensory input
  304. 304Motor OutputActivation of effector organs (muscles and glands) produces a response
  305. 305Divisions of the nervous systemCentral Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
  306. 306Central Nervous SystemBrain and spinal cord
    Integration and command center
  307. 307Peripheral Nervous SystemPaired spinal and cranial nerves carry messages to and from the CNS
  308. 308Two functional divisions of the peripheral nervous system1) Sensory (Afferent) Division
    2) Motor (Efferent) Division
  309. 309Sensory (Afferent) DivisonSomatic afferent fibers- convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
    Visceral afferent fibers- convey impulses from visceral organs
  310. 310Motor (Efferent) DivisionTransmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs
  311. 311Motor Division of PNS1) Somatic (Voluntary) Nervous System
    >Conscious control of skeletal muscles
    2) Autonomic (Involuntary) Nervous System (ANS)
    >Visceral motor nerve fibers- regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
    >Two functional subdivisions
    -Sympathetic
    -Parasympathetic
  312. 312Two Principle Cell Types in Nervous Tissue1) Neurons
    2) Neuroglia
  313. 313NeuronsExcitable cells that transmit electrical signals
  314. 314Neuroglia (Glial Cells)Supporting Cells
    >Astrocytes (CNS)
    >Microglia (CNS)
    >Ependymal Cells (CNS)
    >Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
    >Satellite Cells (PNS)
    >Schwann Cells (PNS)
  315. 315AstrocytesMost abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
    Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and capillaries
    Support and brace neurons
  316. 316MicrogliaSmall, ovoid cells with thorny processes
    Migrate toward injured neurons
    Phagocytize microorganisms and neuronal debris
  317. 317Ependymal CellsRange in shape from squamous to columnar
    May be ciliated
    >Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column
    >separate the CNS interstitial fluid from the cerebrospinal fluid in the cavities
  318. 318OligodendrocytesBranched Cells
    Processes wrap CNS nerve fibers, forming insulation myelin sheaths
  319. 319Satellite CellsSurround neuron cell bodies in the PNS
  320. 320Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes)Surround peripheral nerve fibers and form myelin sheaths
    Vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers
  321. 321Special Characteristics of NeuronsLong Lived ( 100 years of more)
    Amitotic (With few exceptions)
    High Metabolic Rate (depends on continuous supply of oxygen and glucose)
    Plasma membrane functions in:
    >Electrical signaling
    >Cell-to- cell interactions during development
  322. 322Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)Biosynthetic center of a neuron
    Spherical nucleus with a nucleolus
    Well-developed Golgi Apparatus
    Rough ER called Nissl Bodies (chromatophilic substance)
    Clusters of cells bodies are called
    >Nuclei in the CNS
    >Ganglia in the PNS
  323. 323Processes-Dendrites and axons
    -Bundles or processes are called
    >Tracts in the CNS
    >Nerves in the PNS
  324. 324DendritesStructure:
    >Short, tapering, and diffusely branched
    >Receptive (input) region of a neuron
    Function:
    >Convey electrical signals toward the cell body as graded potentials
  325. 325The AxonStructure:
    >One axon per cell arising from the axon hillock
    >Long Axons (nerve fibers)
    >Occasional branches (axon collaterals)
    Function:
    >Conductin region of a neuron
    >Generates and transits nerve impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body
  326. 326Myelin SheathSegmented protein-lipoid sheath around most long or large- diameter axons
    It functions to:
    >Protect and electrically insulate the axon
    >Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission
  327. 327Myelin Sheaths in the PNSSchwann Cells wrap many times around the axon
    >Myelin sheath- concentric layers of Schwann cell membrane
    Neurilemma-peripheral bulge of schwann cell cytoplasm
  328. 328Myelin Sheaths in the PNS (II)Nodes of Ranvier
    >Myelin sheath gaps between adjacent schwann cells
    >Sites where axon collaterals can emerge
  329. 329Unmyelinated AxonsThin nerve fibers are unmyelinated
    One schwann cells may incompletely enclose 15 or more unmyelinated axons
  330. 330Myelin Sheaths in the CNSFormed by processes of oligodendroctyes, not the whole cells
    Nodes of Ranvier are present
    No neurilemma
    Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated
  331. 331Myelin Sheaths in the CNSFormed by processes of oligodendrocytes, not the whole cells
    Nodes of Ranvier are present
    No neurilemma
    Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated
  332. 332White MatterDense collections of myelinated fibers
  333. 333Gray MatterMostly neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers
  334. 334Structural Classification of Neurons1)Multipolar-1 axon and several dendrites
    >most abundant
    >motor neurons and interneurons
    2)Bipolar-1 axon and 1 dendrite
    >Rare (ie retinal neurons)
    3) Unipolar (pseudounipolar)-single, short process that has two branches
    >peripheral process: more distal branch, often associated with a sensory receptor
    >Central proess: branch entering the CNS
  335. 335Functional Classification of Neurons1) Sensory (afferent)
    -Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward the CNS
    2) Motor (Efferent)
    -Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors
    3)Interneurons (association neurons)
    >shuttle signals through CNS pathways; most are entirely within the CNS
  336. 336ArticulationsWhere two bones interconnect
  337. 337Functional Classification of JointsAmount of movement allowed
    Range of motion
  338. 338Structural Classification of JointsAnatomical Components
    Bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
  339. 339SynarthrosesImmovable joints
    Fibrous/cartilageneous
    Bony
  340. 340AmphiarthrosesSlightly moveable joints
    Fibrous/Cartilageneous
  341. 341DiarthrosesFreely movable joints
    Synovial
  342. 342Four major types of synarthrosesSuture: skull bones bound together by dense CT
    Gomphosis: teeth bound to bony sockets by periodontal ligaments
    Synchondrosis: two bones bound by rigid cartilaginous bridge
    Syntosis: two bones completely fused
  343. 343Two major types of AmphiarthrosesSyndesmosis: Bones connected by a ligament
    Symphysis: bone separated by fibrocartilage
  344. 344DiarthrosesJoint is enclosed
    Joint space is filled with fluid
    Can also be called a synovial joint
    Most joints of the appendicular skeleton
  345. 345Components of a synovial jointArticular Capsule
    >Encloses the joint
    Articular Cartilage
    >Hyaline cartilage
    >Covers articulating surfaces
    Synovial Membrane
    >Lines the capsule
    Synovial Fluid
    >Consistency of egg whites
  346. 346Synovial Fluid FunctionsLubrication
    Nutrient Distribution
    Shock Absorption
  347. 347Additional Structures may includeMenisci (Knee)
    Fat pads
    Accessory Ligaments
    Bursae
  348. 348Gliding MotionTwo surfaces slide past one another
    >Carpals, Tarsals
  349. 349FlexionAngular Movement
    Decreases the angle between two parts
  350. 350ExtensionAngular Movement
    Increasing the angle between two parts
  351. 351HyperextensionAngular Movement
    Extending beyond the anatomical position
  352. 352AbductionMovement away from the body's midline
  353. 353AdductionMovement towards the body's midline
  354. 354CircumductionCombination of flexion, adduction, extension, abduction
  355. 355PronationPalms up to down
    Front to back
    Start in anatomical position
  356. 356SupinationPalms down to up
    Back to front
    Return to the anatomical position
  357. 357Plantar FlexionToes down, heel up (flexes plantar surface of the foot)
  358. 358DorsiflexionToes up, heels down
  359. 359Gliding JointsPermit movement in a single plane
  360. 360Hinge JointsMonoaxial joints permitting angular motion in one plane
  361. 361Ellipsoidal JointsBiaxial Joints that pit one bone in an oval depression of another
  362. 362Saddle JointsBiaxial Joints with one concave and one convex bone face
  363. 363Ball-And-Socket JointsTriaxial joints that permit rotation and other movements
  364. 364Central Nervous SystemConsists of the brain and spinal cord
  365. 365CephalizationEvolutionary development of the rostral (anterior) portion of the CNS
    Increased number of neurons in the head
    Highest level is reached in the human brain
  366. 366Embryonic DevelopmentNeural plate is formed from ectoderm
    Neural plate invaginates to form a neural groove and neural folds
    Neural groove fuses dorsally to form the neural tube
    Neural tubes gives rise to the brain and spinal cord
  367. 367Anterior end of the neural tube gives rise to three primary brain vesiclesProsencephalon-Forebrain
    Mesencephalon-Midbrain
    Rhombencephalon-Hindbrain
  368. 368Adult Brain RegionsCerebral Hemisphers
    Diencephalon
    Brain Stem (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata)
    Cerebellum
  369. 369Ventricles of the BrainConnected to one another and to the central canal of the spinal cord
    Contain cerebrospinal fluid
    >Two C-Shaped lateral ventricles in the cerebral hemispheres
    >Third ventricle in the diencephalon
    >Fourth ventricle in the hindbrain, dorsal to the pons, develops from the lumen of the neural tube
  370. 370Surface MarkingsRidges: Gyri
    Shallow Grooves: Sulci
    Deep Grooves: Fissures
  371. 371Five Lobes of Cerebral HemispheresFrontal
    Parietal
    Temporal
    Occipital
    Insula
  372. 372Surface Markings (cont)Central Sulcus: separates the pre central gyrus of the frontal lobe and the post central gyrus of the parietal lobe
    Longitudinal Fissure: Separates the two hemispheres
    Transverse Cerebral Fissure: Separates the cerebrum and the cerebellum
  373. 373Cerebral CortexThin (2-4mm) superficial layer of gray matter
    40% of the mass of the brain
    Site of conscious mind:awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory stage, understanding
    Each hemisphere connects to contralateral sides of the body
    There is lateralizatin of cortical function in the hemispheres
  374. 374LaterilizationDivision of labor between hemispheres
    Left Hemisphere: controls language, math, and logic
    Right Hemisphere: ingisht, visual-spatial skills, intuition, and artistic skills
    Left and right hemispheres communicate via fiber tracts in the cerebral white matter
  375. 375Cerebral DominanceDesignates the hemisphere dominant for language (left hemisphere in 90% of the people)
  376. 376Three types of functional areas of the cerebral cortexMotor Areas-control voluntary movement
    Sensory Areas-conscious awareness of sensation
    Association Areas- integrate diverse information
    Conscious behavior involves the entire cortex
  377. 377Motor Areas of cerebral cortexPrimary (somatic) motor cortex
    >Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements
    Premotor Cortex
    Broca's Area
    Frontal Eye Field
  378. 378Sensory Areas of Cerebral CortexPrimary Somatosensory Cortex
    Somatosensory Association Cortex
    Visual Areas
    Auditory Areas
    Olfactory Cortex
    Gustatory Cortex
    Visceral Sensory Area
    Vestibular Cortex
  379. 379Broca's AreaPresent in one hemisphere (usually the left)
    A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue and is active as one prepares to speak
  380. 380Wernicke's AreaInvolved in understanding written and spoken language
  381. 381Limbic SystemProvides emotional impact that helps establish memories (works together with hypothalamus)
  382. 382DiencephalonThree paired structures:
    Thalamus
    Hypothalamus
    Epithalamus
    Pituitary Gland
  383. 383ThalamusGateway to the cerebral cortex
    Sorts, edits, and relays information
  384. 384HypothalamusAutonomic control center for many visceral functions (i.e. blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility)
    Center for emotional response: involved in perception of pleasure, fear, and rage and in biological rhythms and drives
    Regulates body temp, hunger, thurst, water balance, sleep and wake cycle
    Controls release of hormones by the anterior pituitary
    Produces posterior pituitary hormones
  385. 385EpithalamusMost dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms roof of the third ventricle
  386. 386Pineal GlandExtends from the posterior border and secretes melatonin (which helps regulate sleep-wake cycles)
  387. 387Three Regions of the Brain StemMidbrain
    Pons
    Medulla Oblongata
  388. 388MidbrainLocated between the diencephalon and pons
    Major areas:
    Cerebrul Peduncles -contain pyramidal motor tracts
    Cerebral Aqueduct- channel between 3rd and 4th ventricles
    Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor) and IV (trochlear)
    Corpora Quadrigemnia-domelike dorsal protrusions
    >Superior Colliculi- visual reflex centers
    >Inferior Colliculu- auditory relay centers
  389. 389PonsForms part of the anterior wall of the 4th ventricle
    Fibers of the pons
    >Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord
    >Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum
    Origin of cranial nerves V(trigeminal), VI (abducens), and VII (facial)
    Some nuclei of the reticular formation
    Nuclei that help maintain normal rhythm of breathing
  390. 390Medulla OblongataAutonomic Reflex Centers
    Cardiovascular Center
    >Cardiac center adjusts force and rate of heart contraction
    >Vasomotor center adjusts blood vessel diameter for blood pressure regulation
    Respiratory centers
    >Generate respiratory rhythm
    >Control rate and depth of breathing, with pontine centers
    Additional Centers regulate
    >Vomiting, Hiccuping, Swallowing, Coughing ,Sneezing
  391. 391The Cerebellum11 of brain mass, dorsal to the pons and medulla
    Subconsciously provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
    Recognizes and predicts sequences of events during complex movements
    Plays a role in non motor functions such as word association and puzzle solving
  392. 392Spinal CordLocation:
    Begins at the foramen magnum
    Ends at conus medullaris at L1 vertebra
    Functions:
    Provides two-way communication to and from the brain
    Contains spinal reflex centers
    Protected by bone, meninges, CSF
  393. 393Spinal Cord (cont)Spinal Nerves
    >31 pairs
    Cervical and Lumbar Enlargements
    >the nerves serving the upper and lower limbs emerge here
    Cauda Equina
    > the collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal
  394. 394Peripheral Nervous SystemFormed by all neural structures outside the brain
    >Sensory Receptors
    >Peripheral Nerves and Associated Ganglia
    >Motor Endings
  395. 395Sensory ReceptorsSpecialized to respond to changes ni their environment (stimuli)
    Activation results in graded potentials that trigger nerve impulses
    Sensation (awareness of stimulus) and perception (interpretation of the meaning of the stimulus) occur in the brain
  396. 396Classification of Receptors Based On:Stimulus Type
    Location
    Structural Complexity
  397. 397MechanoreceptorsRespond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch
  398. 398Thermoreceptorssensitive to changes in temperature
  399. 399Photoreceptorsrespond to light energy (i.e. retina)
  400. 400ChemoreceptorsRespond to chemicals (ie smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry)
  401. 401Nociceptorssensitive to pain-causing stimuli (i.e. extreme heat or cold, excessive pressure, inflammatory chemicals)
  402. 402Classification by LocationExteroceptors
    Interoceptors
    Proprioceptors
  403. 403ExteroceptorsRespond to stimuli arising outside the body
    Receptors in the skin for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
    Most special sense organs
  404. 404Interoceptors (Visceroceptors)Respond to stimule arising in internal viscera and blood vessels
    Sensitive to chemical changes, tissue stretch, and temp changes
  405. 405ProprioceptorsRespond to stretch in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and CT coverings of bones and muscles
    Inform the brain of one's movements
  406. 406Classification by Structural ComplexityComplex Receptors (Special Sense organs)
    Simple Receptors for General Senses
  407. 407Complex Receptors (Special Sense Organs)Vision, Hearing, Equilibrium, Smell, and Taste
  408. 408Simple Receptors for General SensesTactile Sensations (Touch, pressure, stretch, vibration) Temperature, Pain, and Muscle Sense
    Unencapsulated (Free) or Encapsulated Dendritic Endings
  409. 409Unencapsulated Dendritic EndingsThermoreceptors
    Nociceptors
    Light Touch Receptors
  410. 410ThermoreceptorsCold Receptors (10-40 degrees celsius) in superficial dermis
    Heat Receptors (32-48 degress celsius)
  411. 411NociceptorsRespond to: Pinching, chemicals from damaged tissue, temperatures outside the range of thermoreceptors
  412. 412Light Touch ReceptorsTactile (Merkel) Discs and Hair Follicle Receptors
  413. 413Encapsulated Dendritic EndingsMeissner's (tactile) corpuscles
    Pacinian (Lamellated) corpuscles
    Ruffini Endings
    Muscle Spindles
    Golgi Tendon Organs
    Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
  414. 414Meissner's (Tactile) CorpusclesDiscriminative Touch
  415. 415Pacinian (Lamellated) CorpusclesDeep pressure and vibration
  416. 416Ruffini Endingsdeep continuous pressure
  417. 417Muscle SpindlesMuscle Stretch
  418. 418Golgi Tendon OrgansStretch in tendons
  419. 419Joint Kinesthetic ReceptorsStretch in articular capsules
  420. 420From Sensation to PerceptionSurvival Depends upon sensation and perception
  421. 421SensationThe awareness of changes in the internal and external environment
  422. 422PerceptionThe conscious interpretation of those stimuli
  423. 423Sensory IntegrationInput comes from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and interceptors
    Input is relayed toward the head, but is processed along the way
  424. 424Sensory IntegrationLevels of neural integration in sensory systems:
    1) Receptor Level- the sensor receptors
    2) Circuit Level- ascending pathways
    3) Perceptual Level-neuronal circuits in the cerebral cortex
  425. 425Processing at the receptor levelReceptors have specifity for stimulus energy
    Stimulus must be applied in a receptive field
    Adaptation is a change in sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulus
    >Receptor membranes become less responsive
    >Receptor potentials decline in frequency or stop
  426. 426Phasic ReceptorsFast-adapting
    Signal the beginning or end of a stimulus
    ex: receptors for pressure, touch, and smell
  427. 427Tonic ReceptorsAdapt slowly or not at all
    Examples: nociceptors and proprioceptors
  428. 428Processing at the circuit levelPathways of 3 neurons conduct sensory impulses upward to the appropriate brain regions
  429. 429First Order NeuronsConduct impulses from the receptor level to the second-order neurons in the CNS
  430. 430Second Order NeuronsTransmit impulses to the thalamus or cerebellum
  431. 431Third Order NeuronsConduct impulses from the thalamus to the somatosensory cortex (perceptual level)
  432. 432Processing at the Perceptual LevelIdentification of the sensation depends on the specific location of the target neurons in the sensory cortex
  433. 433Perceptual DetectionAbilty to detect a stimulus (requires summation of impulses)
  434. 434Magnitude EstimationIntensity is coded in the frequency or impulses
  435. 435Spatial DiscriminationIdentifying the site or pattern of the stimulus (studied by the two-point discrimination test)
  436. 436Structure of a NerveCordlike organ of the PNS
    Bundle of myelinated and unmyelinated peripheral axons enclosed by CT
    CT coverings include
    >Endoneurium-loose CT that encloses axons and their myelin sheaths
    >Perineurim- coarse CT that bundles fibers into fascicles
    >Epineurium- tough fibrous sheath around a nerve
  437. 437Classification of NervesMost nerves are mixtures of afferent and efferent fibers and somatic and autonomic (Visceral) fibers
    Pure sensory (afferent) or motor (efferent) nerves are rare
    Types of fibers in mixed nerves
    >Somatic afferent and somatic effernt
    >Visceral afferent and visceral efferent
    Peripheral nerves are classified as cranial or spinal nerves
  438. 438GangliaContain neuron cell bodies associated with nerves (IN PNS)
    >Dorsal root ganglia (sensory, somatic)
    >Autonomic Ganglia (motor, visceral)
  439. 439Regeneration of Nerve FibersMature neurons are amitotic
    If the soma of a damaged nerve is intact, axon will regenerate
    Involves coordinated activity among:
    >macrophages: remove debris
    >schwann cells: form regeneration tube and secrete growth factors
    >axons: regenerate damaged part
    CNS oligodendrocytes bear growth-inhibiting proteins that prevent CNS fiber regeneration
  440. 440Cranial NervesTwelve Pairs of nerves associated with the brain
    Most are mixed in function; two pairs are purely sensory
    Each nerve is identified by a number (I through XII) and a name
    "On Occasion Our Trust Truck Acts Funny- Very Good Vehicle Anyhow
  441. 441Spinal Nerves31 pairs of mixed nerves named according to their point of issue from the spinal cord
    8 cervical (C1-C8)
    12 thoracic (T1-T12)
    5 lumbar (L1-L5)
    5 sacral (S1-S5)
    1 coccygeal (C0)
  442. 442Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)The ANS consists of motor neurons that:
    >Innervate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
    >Make adjustments to ensure optimal support for body activities
    >Operate via subconscious control
    Other names
    >involuntary nervous system
    >General visceral motor system
  443. 443The two systems differ inEffectors
    Efferent pathways (and their neurotransmitters)
    Target organ responses to neurotransmitters
  444. 444EffectorsFor somatic nervous system- skeletal muscles
    For ANS- cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
  445. 445Efferent PathwaysSomatic Nervous System
    >A thick heavily myelinated somatic motor fiber makes up each pathway from the CNS to the muscle
  446. 446ANS Pathway is a two-neuron chain1) Preganglionic neurgon (IN CNS) has a thin, lightly myelinated preganglionic axon
    2) Ganglionic neuron in autonomic ganglion has an unmyelinated postganglionic axon that extends to the effector organ
  447. 447Somatic Nervous SystemAll somatic motor neuron release actetylcholine (ACh)
    Effects are always stimulatory
  448. 448ANSPreganglionic fibers release ACh
    Postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine or ACh at effectors
    Effect is either stimulatory or inhibitory depending on type of receptors
  449. 449Divisions of the ANS1) sympathetic division
    2) parasympathetic division
    >Dual innervation
    -almost all visceral organs are served by both divisions, but they cause opposite effects
  450. 450Role of the Parasympathetic DivisionPromotes maintenance activities and conserves body energy
    Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes, reading, after a meal
    >blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates are low
    >gastrointestnal tract activity is high
    >pupils are constricted and lenses are accommodatd for close vision
  451. 451Role of the sympathetic divisionMobilizes the body during activity: is the "fight-or-flight" system
    Promotes adjustments during exercise or when threatened
    >blood flow is shunted to skeletal muscles and heart
    >bronchioles dilate
    >liver releases glucose
  452. 452Sympathetic DivisionOrigin of Fibers: Thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord
    Length of fibers: short preganglionic and lost postganglionic
    Location of ganglia: close to the spinal cord
  453. 453Parasympathetic DivisionOrigin of Fibers: Brain and sacral spinal cord (craniosacral)
    Length of Fibers: Long preganglionic and short postganglionic
    Location of Ganglia: In visceral effector organs
  454. 454NeurotransmittersCholinergic Fibers release the neurotransmitter ACh
    > All ANS preganglionic axons
    >All parasympathetic postganglionic axons
    Adrenergic FIbers release the neurotransmitter NE
    >most sympathetic postganglionic axons
    >exceptions: sympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete ACh at sweat glands and some blood vessels in skeletal muscles
  455. 455Receptors for Neurotransmitters1) Cholinergic Receptors for ACh
    2) Adrenergic Receptors for NE
  456. 456Cholinergic ReceptorsTwo types of receptors bing ACh
    1)Nicotinic
    2) Muscarinic
    Names after drugs that bind to them and mimic ACH effects
    Effect of ACh at nicotinic receptors is always stimulatory
    The effect of ACh at muscarinic receptors can be either inhibitory or excitatory
  457. 457Adrenergic ReceptorsTwo Types
    >Alpha
    >Beta
    Effects of NE depend on which subclass of receptor predominates on the target organ
  458. 458Effects of drugsOver the counter drugs for colds, allergies, and nasal congestion
    >stimulates a-adrenergic receptor s
    Beta Blockers
    >drugs that attach to beta 2 receptors to dilate lung bronchioles in asthmatics; other uses
  459. 459Control of ANS functioningHypothalamus- main integrative center of ANS activity
    Subconscious cerebral input via limbic lobe connections influences hypothalamic function
    Other controls come from the cerebral cortex, the reticular formation, and the spinal cord
  460. 460Hypothalamic ControlControl may be direct or indirect (through the reticular system)
    Centers of the hypothalamus control
    >Heart activity and blood pressure
    >Body temp, water balance, and endocrine activity
    >emotional stages (rage, pleasure) and biological drives (hunger, thirst, sex)
    >reactions to fear and the "fight-or-flight" system
  461. 461Developmental Aspects of the ANSDuring youth, ANS impairments are usually due to injury
    In old age ANS efficiency declines partially due to structural changes at preganglionic axon terminals
  462. 462The three parts of the earInner, Middle, and External Ear
  463. 463The external and middle earInvolved with sound wave transmission
  464. 464The inner earFunctions in both hearing and equilibrium
  465. 465Receptors for hearing and equilibriumRespondto separate stimuli
    Are activated independently
  466. 466The route of sound to the inner ear follows this pathwayExternal Ear-pinna, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane
    Middle Ear-malleus, incus, and stapes to the oval window. Learn middle ear bones by proper name
    Inner Ear- scala vestibuli and scala tympani to the cochlear duct
    >Stimulation of the spiral organ (organ of corgi)
    >Cochlea is the structure for hearing
    >Generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve
  467. 467Vestibular ApparatusEquilbrium receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibule
    >Maintains our orientation and balance in space
    >Vestibular receptors monitor static equilibrium and linear acceleration
    >semicircular canal receptors monitor dynamic equilibrium

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Karteikarten am Ohne Titel, erstellt von lbiggers am 04/12/2014.
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