Karteikarten
Inteligence
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- 1What is intelligence? “[An] innate general cognitive ability”(Cyril Burt, 1955)
- 2“The ability to carry out abstract thinking”(Lewis Terman, 1921)
- 3“The aggregate of the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment”(David Wechsler, 1944)
- 4“Ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought”(American Psychological Association)
- 5“A very general mental ability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience”(Gottfredson, 1997)
- 6Why is it a difficult concept?Like personality, intelligence is a complex
hypothetical construct used to understand & explain behaviour… - “Intelligence” can not be observed directly. - We can only infer an individual’s “intelligence” from their behaviour & interaction with others. - 7“Intellectual activity consists in grasping the essentials in a situation and responding appropriately to them”(Alice Heim, 1970)
- 8Francis Galton (1822-1911)Galton believed that the higher
intelligence of so-called “eminent men”
was largely inherited from their parents… i.e. High intelligence was simply the matter of having the ‘right’ genes. - 9How did Galton measure?To test his ideas, Galton used a variety of different physical variables as a measure of intelligence:
e.g. Reaction times; eyesight & hearing; colour discrimination; grip strength; - 10Galtons assumption- Superior intelligence would be an
outward reflection of superior physical
development of the brain & body.
The first attempt - Physical measures expected to provide a reliable index of an individual’s intellectual prowess. i.e. People of low intelligence were expected to show slow reaction times, poor eyesight & hearing. - 11Alfred Binet (1857-1911)In 1882, French educational reform meant that attending school was compulsory for children aged 6 -14 yrs. - In 1904, Alfred Binet was appointed to the “commission on the education of the retarded” - This commission was tasked with developing a means of quickly identifying those children in need of an “alternative education”.
- 12Thsi created the first inteligence testBinet-Simon test:
- 30 short tasks of increasing difficulty.
- Established age-related norms for each task. - 13How does the Binet- Simon test work?Test scores used to estimate a child’s “mental age”- Level of intellectual development assessed relative to their chronological age. i.e. If a child passes all the tests passed by an average 8-year-old, but fails to pass those tests passed by the average 9-year-old. Mental age = 8 years
- 14Lewis Terman (1912)Translated the Binet-Simon
test into English, revised agenorms & added new test items… This new test
became known
as the Stanford-Binet test. - 15Standford-Binet test:- Test standardised using a sample of 1,000
American children (4–14 years).
- Designed to measure normal & high intelligence,
as well as sub-normal. - 16Measured different aspects of intelligence:(a) Quantitative reasoning;
(b) Verbal reasoning;
(c) Short-term memory;
(d) Visual-spatial reasoning; - 17and so the IQ test?Test scores were later used to
calculate a newly developed
measure of intelligence, know as
the “intelligence quotient” (IQ)
Terman did not develop the idea of
IQ himself, it was first introduced
by a German psychologist,
William Stern… - 18William Stern (1912)Using the Binet-Simon test, Stern noticed
that a child’s “mental age” seemed to
develop proportionally to their real age.
- Developed a measure of intelligence
that allowed comparisons both within
& between age groups.
- This measure became known as the
“intelligence quotient” - 19IQ and mental ageUsing the Binet-Simon test, Stern noticed that a child’s “mental age” seemed to develop proportionally to their real age…
- 20Ratio IQStern found that if a child’s mental age was
divided by his / her chronological age, a
relatively consistent measure of intelligence could be calculated…
IQ = ‘mental age’
chronological age x 100 - 21why was this beneficial?The use of intelligence quotients also meant it was easier to compare children across different age groups….
- 22Robert Yerkes (1917)need an IQ that was quick and could test lots of people to assign roles suitable t soiliders intellegnce
- 23The two tests created by Yerkes?- Army alpha test (literate soldiers)
e.g. Follow oral instructions; solve simple maths problems; identify synonyms / antonyms; re-arrange sentences.
- Army beta test (illiterate / non-English speaking) e.g. Complete maze task; finish a jigsaw puzzle. Soldiers were tested in large groups, and were expected to complete the test within a certain time. - 24What were the results of these intelligence tests over the war?Over the course of the war, around 1.75 million army recruits had been tested.
- Analysis of this data suggested that the
average US army recruit had the ‘mental age’ of a 13-year-old. - 25David Wechsler (1896-1981)- The Stanford-Binet test was originally
only meant for use with children, but
demand soon arose for the assessment
of adult intelligence. Wechsler designed new intelligence tests that people
of all ages could take... - 26Wechsler realised that the ‘ratio’ measure of IQ was not appropriate when testing adult intelligence…mental age is important, e.g. theres is little difference between a 20 to a 40-year-old.
but the Stanford binet would show that the older person was very stupid - 27Modern intelligence tests To address this problem, Wechsler introduced the concept of ‘deviation IQ’…
- 28The Assumption of deviation IQIntelligence, like any physical or psychological variable, is likely to be
naturally distributed across a population. - 29Wechsler developed several intelligence tests, but is perhaps best known for…- Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) - 30What is the normal distribution of the population in relation to IQ?In any population, most people (70%) will have an IQ score somewhere between 85 & 115…
- 31One factor or several?There are several different theories of
what ‘intelligence’ is…
Some theorists believe ‘intelligence’ is a single, general ability.
Others disagree and suggest that ‘intelligence is better understood as a
collection of distinct intellectual abilities. - 32One factor or several?In most cases, these theories
of intelligence were based on a
factor analysis of IQ test
scores…
i.e.
How many different ‘factors’ are evident in IQ test scores? - 33What is factor analysis?A statistical tool used to summarise how a
large number of variables are related & identify common patterns that might underlie these correlations (i.e. factors). - 34Participants asked to complete six different IQ tests… reading, maths, art etc- Are these six tests measuring the same
underlying intellectual ability?
- Or are they measuring different ‘factors’
of intelligence?
think P.C.A. - 35Charles Spearman (1863-1949) School children were asked to complete a variety of different intelligence tests.Analysis of test scores showed positive
correlations between all the different tests. i.e. If you perform well on one IQ test (e.g. mathematics), you were also likely to perform well on other measures
of intelligence (e.g. spatial awareness).
Based on these findings, Spearman
proposed a two-factor theory of
intelligence… - 36Two-factor model of intelligence:- Specific abilities ( or ‘s’) This relates to the type of intelligence needed to perform well on a particular task / IQ test (e.g. mathematical / spatial / linguistic intelligence).
- General intelligence (or ‘g’) This is a general factor of intelligence, underlying an individual’s performance on all tasks / IQ tests. - 37Seven “primary mental abilities” Louis Thurstone (1887-1955)Students asked to complete a battery of
56 different intelligence tests.
Factor analysis of test scores suggested
there were seven factors.
Thurstone described these factors as
the seven “primary mental abilities”… - 38What are the 7?There are seven relatively distinct abilities that are involved in all intellectual activities…
- Verbal comprehension
- Numerical ability
- Spatial ability
- Perceptual speed
- Word fluency
- Memory
- Reasoning - 39Thurstone disagreed with Spearman’s idea that there was a single factor that influenced all other aspects of intelligence…- Instead, Thurstone believed that
‘g’ was the result of these seven
distinct “primary mental abilities”. - 40Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)Accepted Spearman’s idea that there was
likely to be a general factor of intelligence... However, Cattell suggested that “g” consisted of two related, but distinct, types of intelligence. Using factor analysis, he identified these two factors: Crystallised intelligence and Fluid intelligence - 41Fluid intelligence (or ‘gf’)- The ability to process & solve abstract problems.
- These abilities were thought to be innate & culture-independent.
- Increases throughout childhood, peaking in adolescence,
and then begins to decline gradually in mid-adulthood. - 42Crystallised intelligence (or ‘gc’)- Acquired knowledge & skills (e.g. vocabulary, general knowledge).
- Increases throughout life-span, and reflects an individual’s
cumulative learning experience. - 43Cattell accepted there was a general intelligence, but suggested that ‘g’ could be sub-divided into related, but distinct components…crystallised and fluid
- 44J.P. Guilford (1897-1987)Entirely rejected the idea of a general
factor of intelligence…
Instead, Guilford (1977) proposed in his
“Structural Intellect” (SI) theory that
intelligence was the result of 150 distinct
& independent mental abilities. - 45These 150 abilities were thought to fall into 3 groups…1. Operations - Types of mental processing (e.g. memory, evaluation)
2. Contents - Comprised of the mental information (e.g. visual, auditory) upon which operations are performed.
3. Products - The form in which the information is stored and used. - 46These initial theories of intelligence tended to focused only on those intellectual abilities measured by IQ tests. There are now theories that extend beyond those skills / abilities measured by traditional IQ testse.g.
- Abstract thinking
- Verbal reasoning
- Mathematical ability
- Mental rotation, etc
There are now theories that extend beyond those skills / abilities measured by traditional IQ tests… - 47Howard Gardner(1983)The western educational system & traditional IQ tests tend to focus only on a limited number of abilities (i.e. linguistic, logicalmathematical & spatial intelligence). - Gardner argued that we should broaden our concept of intelligence to include the full range of human capabilities. - Suggested there were eight distinct and independent intelligences.
- 48Multiple Intelligences
- 49Gardner (1983) argued...there were several independent types of intelligence, not a single general ability.
i.e. Having high musical intelligence has no influence on an individuals level of logical / mathematical intelligence. - 50Robert Sternberg (1985, 1988)Triarchic theory of intelligence
- Suggested that Gardner’s eight factors
should be better understood as ‘talents’,
than as forms of intelligence.
- Identified three types of intelligence that enable individuals to successfully adapt to their environment. - 51Sternberg (1985) proposed three types of intelligence, not a single general ability…Analytic (or ‘componential’)
Creative (or ‘experiential’)
Practical (or ‘contextual’) - 52Analytic(or ‘componential’) - Identifying problems and the strategies for solving them. - Mental abilities most closely related to traditional IQ tests.
- 53Creative(or ‘experiential’) - Creative thinking and problem-solving - Ability to deal with new situations & use past experience to resolve recurrent problems.
- 54Practical(or ‘contextual’)
- Adapting solutions to suit different contexts. - “Street smarts” - 55Goleman (1995) proposed a different kind of intelligence not based on a specific cognitive ability, emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is believed to consist of 4 emotional competencies:1) Self-awareness (i.e. ability to identify your emotions)
2) Self-regulation (i.e. ability to manage your emotions)
3) Social awareness (i.e. ability to assess & influence other peoples’ emotions)
4) Social skills (i.e. ability to develop & then maintain good social relationships) - 56Sex- Females tend to perform slightly better on measures of verbal abilities
- Males tend to perform slightly better on measures of spatial ability - 57Ethnicity- People from ethnic minority groups have been found to perform worse on IQ tests
- 58Socio-economic status- Children from poorer families found to perform less well on measures of intelligence than those
from middle & upper-class families. - 59Francis Galton (1869)His analysis found that close relatives (father / son) of an ‘eminent’ individual were themselves more likely to be ‘eminent’ than more distant relative (e.g. grandson). - On this basis, Galton concluded that intel
- 60Behavioural geneticsinvestigates the extent to
which variations in the phenotype (i.e. intelligence) might be attributed to variations in the genotype (i.e. the underlying genetic structure). - 61IQ & geneticsfamily
twin
apotion - 62Bouchard & McGue (1981) A review of 111 twin & kinship studies (i.e. approximately 10,000 twin pairs examined).
Identical twins (r = 0.86)
(i.e. share identical DNA & similar environment)
Non-identical twins (r =0.60)
(i.e. share similar DNA (av. 50%) & similar environment) - 63Twin studies may overestimate the heritability of intelligence…because they are raised together and have the same enviroment
- 64Horn (1983) Assessed the intelligence of 500 adopted children and that of their adopted and biological parents.Although correlations are suggestive of a genetic influence, they are too low be conclusive.
Biological mother (r = 0.28)
(i.e. shares 50% of DNA with child, but no interaction)
Adoptive mother (r =0.15)
(i.e. shares no DNA with child, but has daily contact) - 65Buchard & McGue (1981) - A review of 111 twin & kinship studies twins raised apartEvidence for the
genetic heritability of
intelligence? Despite being raised in different family environments, IQ scores for MZ twins show greater similarity
than DZ twins raised together in
same family environment. - 66Buchard & McGue (1981) - A review of 111 twin & kinship studies twins raised togetherCorrelations also
provide evidence for the influence of
environmental factors?
Regardless of genetics, IQ scores
show greater similarity when children
are raised together. - 67Recent estimates suggest that the heritability of intelligence is around50%
- 68There are four main ways the environment is known to influence intelligence:1. Prenatal & early life events
2. Family environment
3. School & education
4. Culture - 691. Prenatal & early life events Nutrition- Breast-fed children found to have higher IQ scores than those did not receive
breast milk (e.g. Oddy et al, 2004, Smith et al, 2003). - 70Lead- Early exposure to environmental lead associated with lower IQ scores.
- 71Alcohol- Excess consumption (esp. binge drinking) during pregnancy linked
to poor performance on IQ tests (e.g. Uecker & Nadel, 1996). - 72Smoking- Women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to have children with lower
IQ scores (e.g. Mortensen et al, 2005) - 732. Family environment Socioeconomic status of family- Children born into families of higher socioeconomic status found to score
higher on IQ tests than those in families of lower SES (e.g. Mackintosh, 1998)
- Adoption from a low SES family to parents of high SES leads to significant
improvements in IQ (e.g. Wahlsten, 1997). - 74Family size- Children from larger families found to have lower IQ scores than those from
smaller families (e.g. Belmont & Marolla, 1973). - 75Birth order- Within families, first-born children are most likely to score highest on IQ tests,
compared to his / her fellow siblings (e.g. Dumitrashku, 1996). - 76Sameroff et al (1993)- Followed hundreds of children from birth until adolescence
- Identified 10 environmental risk factors that adversely affect a child’s IQ
- On average, the presence of each risk factor was associated with
a loss of 5 IQ points. - 77the 10 factors1. Mother has a history of mental illness
2. Mother did not go to high school
3. The mother has severe anxiety
4. The mother has rigid beliefs about child development
5. There are few positive interactions between mother & infant
6. The main earner in the family has a semi-skilled job
7. The child is from a minority group
8. The father does not live with the family
9. There are four or more children in the family
10. The family has suffered more than 20 stressful events
before the age of 4 years-old. - 783. School & education Regular school attendance- Children who regularly attend school do better on IQ tests than those attend
less regularly (Ceci, 1990, 1991). - 79Delayed start at school- Starting school later in life can lead to lower IQ scores (e.g. Wahlsten, 1997)
- 80Length of time in education- Intelligence might increase incrementally the longer you stay in education
(e.g. Winship & Korenman, 1997). - 81BUT...However, access to educational resources & high
quality schools is arguably linked inextricably to SocioEconmicStatus. - 82IQ test biasPerhaps conventional IQ tests simply
measure an individual’s familiarity with
middle-class culture? IQ tests have typically been developed by white, middle class, male academics… - 83A culture free test?Raven’s Progressive Matrices
- However, white Americans still perform
better on culture-free tests.
- Perhaps reflects greater familiarity with
testing situation or ‘stereotype threat’? - 84Why are some people more intelligent than others? Individual differences in intelligence are likely to reflect a complex interaction of factors…Genetics - Individual differences are the result of our genetic inheritance.
The environment - Individual differences are the result of environmental factors.
(e.g. education, poverty, nutrition)
Test bias - The way IQ tests are designed may naturally favour certain social groups. - 85—
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- U24125: Personality and Individual Differences Karteikarten am Inteligence, erstellt von Jasmine Stow am 15/04/2019.
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