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- 1What does it mean for an argument to be valid?If the premises are all true, the conclusion must also be true.
In other words, it is impossible for the premises to all be true while the conclusion is false. - 2What is a truth table?It is a method for determining the truth value of complex statements given the truth values of the simple statements.
- 3What makes propositional or statement logic truth-functional logic?It is a logic which allows us to calculate the truth-value of complex sentences simply in terms of the truth-values of the simples
- 4What is categorical logic?It is a logic which allows us to reason with category terms
- 5How is propositional logic different from categorical logic?Propositional logic allows us to reason with whole sentences.
Categorical logic allows us to reasons with category terms - 6What is a subject term?It is the category term in subject position. The subject term is what the sentence is about.
- 7What is a predicate term?It is the category term in predicate position. The predicate term is what is being said about the subject.
- 8What are categorical statementsIt is a statement with category terms
- 9there are 4 standard form categorical statements. What are they?A: All A’s are B’s
E: No A’s are B’s
I: Some A’s are B’s
O: Some A’s are not B’s - 10What is the copula?The copula some variation of “to be”.
- 11What is a quantifier?A quantifier specifies a quantity.
- 12What is an enumerative inductive argument?It is an inductive argument where we enumerate or list members of a target population and observe that it has a relevant property. Then, we infer that all members of that target population has that property.
- 13Enumerative induction comes with some useful terminology. What is “the target population” or “target group”?It is all of the members of group or category in the subject position in the conclusion.
- 14What is “the sample size”?It is the members of the target group for which we have direct data.
- 15What is “the relevant property” or “property in question”?It is represented by the category term in the conclusion in predicate position
- 16In addition to being big enough, a sample must be representative of the target population. What does this mean?The Sample has to be like the entire target population in the relevant sense
- 17In order for a sample to be representative, it must be like the target group by (1) having all the same relevant characteristics and (2) having them in the same proportions that the target group does. Explain why this is.If it is not like the target population, then the sample and the entire target population might be different in the relevant sense.
- 18In order for a sample to be representative, it must be random. What does it mean for a sample to be random? Why is it important that a sample be random?A sample is random just in case the members of the sample do not differ from the entire target population in any relevant sense.
- 19What does it mean to say that a sample is self-selecting? Why are self selecting samples non-representative of the target population?A sample is self-selecting if the members of the sample select themselves to be a part of the sample.
- 20What does it mean to say that the margin of error for a particular sampling is between 2-3 %.It means that the result of the conclusion might be off by 2 – 3 %
- 21What is an analogy?It is a comparison of two or more things which are alike in relevant ways
- 22What is an analogical argument?It is an argument of the following type: A and B have many properties in common. So then, since A has a further property F, we conclude that B has F.
- 23What makes an analogical argument an inductive argument?We move from the fact that since A and B are alike in various ways, they must be alike in some further way. The inference is inductive because we moved from the fact that A and B are alike in various ways to the conclusion that they must be alike in some further way.
- 24In an analogical argument, the more relevant the similarities between the two things being compared, the stronger the argument. Explain.If A and B are alike in many ways, that gives reasons to think that they are alike in the relevant way.
Thus, if A has the relevant property F, B has it as well. - 25In an analogical argument, the more relevant the dissimilarities between the two things being compared, the weaker the argument. ExplainIf A and B are dissimilar in relevant ways, then, the fact that A has F does not necessarily mean that B has it.
- 26What are theoretical explanationsIt is supposed to explain why something is the way it is or why something happened.
- 27What is an inference to the best explanation?We reason from a set of premises or observations to the theory which best accounts for the observations.
- 28What makes an inference to the best explanation an inductive inference?It is a probable inference.
The observations or premises being true is supposed to make the conclusion or the theory in question likely to be true. - 29You wake up in the morning look outside and notice that all streets are wet. What would best explain this?Rain would.
There are various things that can account for or explain this, but rain is the best one - 30You get in your car in the morning and notice that it won’t start? What are some possible explanations? How do we decide which is the best?The battery is dead
The fuel tank is empty
The starter has malfunctioned
A vandal has sabotaged the car
All or several of the above. - 31What role did inferences to the best explanation play in the construction of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution?There are various theories or explanations for the biological facts.
Darwin’s theory is the best of those theories as measured by the criteria of adequacy.
It is best in terms of testability, fruitfulness, scope, simplicity, and conservatism - 32We want our theories to be consistent. What does it mean for a theory to be internally consistent?The theory does not contain any contradictions.
The theory implies both that something is and is not the case - 33What does it mean for a theory to be externally consistent?The theory does not contradict external facts.
- 34How do we judge whether an explanation or theory is the best one? One criterion is that it be testable. What does that mean?There is a way to test the theory. It must be possible to either confirm or disconfirm the theory. That is, it must be verifiable or falsifiable
- 35I have a crushing headache. Here is a theory or explanation—the devil is rattling my brain. This theory fails the testability criterion. Explain.The theory cannot be used to make any further predictions.
It is not clear what we could predict based on this theory. - 36What do we mean by the fruitfulness of a theory? Why is it that if theory 1 is more fruitful than theory 2, theory 1 is more likely to be true?A theory’s fruitfulness is measured in terms of the number of predictions it can be used to make outside of the phenomena it was intended to explain.
- 37What does it mean to say that theory 1 has greater scope than theory 2? What is the sense in which Einstein’s relativity theory has greater scope than Newton’s theory of gravitation and motion?Theory 1 can explain more of the relevant phenomena than theory 2.
Einstein’s theory can explain everything Newton’s theory can explain plus it can explain things Newton’s theory cannot. - 38What does it mean for theory 1 to be simpler than theory 2?Theory 1 makes less assumptions than theory 2.
The less assumptions, the less ways the theory can go wrong.
Conspiracy theories are usually wrong because they make way too many assumptions.
There is too much going on.
There are too many ways in which the theory can go wrong. - 39What does it mean to say that theory 1 is more conservative than theory 2?Theory 1 better fits with well-established bits of knowledge.
- 40Why is science not the same thing as technology?Science is a method to obtain knowledge about the natural world.
Technology is the production of products.
Scientific knowledge is needed to produce these products.
But the knowledge and the products that require that knowledge for their production are not the same. - 41Why can’t we identify science with any particular worldview?Science is applications of the scientific method.
The use of the scientific method is not tied to any particular worldview - 42What does it mean to say that two hypothesis are competing hypotheses?The two hypotheses are supposed to explain the very same phenomenon.
- 43What are the five ways to judge a scientific theoryA. Testability
B. Fruitfulness
C. Scope
D. Simplicity
E. Conservatism
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