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- 1Scales of measurementsNominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
- 2Nominalno #/quantitative, they are categories/groups. Ex: eye color, gender, college majo
- 3Ordinalminimal quantitative, know order but not strength. Rank order the variable levels. Ex: lowest-highest, importance of education, health, crime
- 4Intervalquantitative, intervals between levels are equal in size (1-2, 2-3), 5 or more levels. Ex: rating scales, very negative/very positive, no absolute zero
- 5Ratiohas equal intervals & absolute zero point that indicates absence of variable being measured. Uses data that can be summarized as a mean or math average. Ex: Time, weight, length.
- 6IntervalQuantitative
- 7NominalCategories or groups
- 8Ordinalranks without strengths
- 9Ratioabsolute zero, equal parts
- 10Scales of measurement stepsCreate operational definition of variable and have 2+levels of variable. Levels are described by using scales. Scale used determines types of stats appropriate for results collected
- 11Levels are described by usingscales
- 12how many ways are there to describe results3
- 13what are the three ways of describing resultscompare groups in %. Correlating individual scores. Compare group means.
- 14compare groups usingpercentages
- 15Correlating individual scoresNo separate groups of subjects Individuals are measured on 2 variables Each variable has range of numerical values
- 16Group Meanscompare the means of the control to the manipulated variable
- 17Frequency distributionsAnalyzing & Describing Results: 1st step is to understand data so you can describe it How many people received each possible score Percentage of students who received a given score on exam Number of people who received each score on an exam
- 18how to graph frequency distributionsPie Charts, Bar Graphs, frequency polygons, histograms
- 19Pie Charts# of scores is turned into %, nominal scale info, depicts 1 variable
- 20Bar Graphsuse separate bar for each score, able to compare more variables
- 21Frequency Polygonsuses lines to depict scores.
- 22Histogramsuses bars, continuous values, are connected
- 23Pearson CorrelationR
- 24Pearson R Correlationstrength of linear association between 2 variables
- 25Variabilityrange of scores
- 26Variability is composed ofStandard Deviation, Variance, Range
- 27Standard deviationaverage deviation of scores from mean, square root of variance.
- 28RangeDifference between highest and lowest score
- 29Variancedegree to which scores vary about the group mean
- 30how many ways are there to describe descriptive statistics2
- 31what are the 2 ways of describing descriptive statisticsCentral tendency (overall score), Variability (range of scores)
- 32Central tendencyoverall score
- 33variabilityrange of scores
- 34what are the 3 measures of central tendencymean, median, mode
- 35meanarithmetic average dividing the sum by the number of scores, interval or ratio (values of #s)
- 36medianthe middle score in a distribution, divides group in half, very useful if scores are skewed in one direction, ordinal scale (rank order)
- 37modesimplest indicator, the most frequent score, nominal scale (category)
- 38values of #smean
- 39Rank ordermedian
- 40categorycamode
- 41Internal Validitycertain that results are attributed to the IV, most important in Lab experiments
- 42External Validityextent to which findings may be generalized
- 43participantscollege students are the most participants in studies(70%), intro to psych, diverse group
- 44Meta-analysisexamining results of multiple previous studies to determine reliability of findings
- 45Inferential Statisticsgeneralize about population, accuracy is necessary
- 46accuracy is necessary becausethe results of a given study are based on data obtained from a single sample of researcher participants and Data are not based on an entire population of scores
- 47Inferential statisticsbegins with standard deviation and is a way to describe results
- 48Inferential StatisticsAllow researchers to make inferences (predictions) about the true differences in populations of scores based on a sample of data from that population Allows that the difference between sample means reflects random error rather than a real difference
- 49Null HypothesisH0: Population Means are Equal = there is NO difference Population means are in fact equal Any mean difference observed in the samples reflects the random error. IV had no effect
- 50Research HypothesisH1: Population Means are Not Equal = there is a difference Population means are not equal The mean difference observed is real. IV had effect
- 51Research HypothesisIV had effect
- 52Null HypothesisIV had no effect
- 53How do we determine significant resultsAlpha Level
- 54Alpha Levelprobability required for significance. Most common is .05 (5%) or less (5 out of 100 chances that results were due to random error or CHANCE).
- 55As the sample size increases(less sampling error), we can be more confident that your outcome is actually different than the null hypothesis
- 56The larger the F ratiothe more likely it is that results are significant.
- 57the larger the sample size,the larger the significant results, which provides better estimates of true population values
- 58larger effect size more likely to obtainsignificant results
- 59goal is to determine if results are reliable(to be confident as a result of the sample size)
- 60alpha level you chooseindicates how confident you wish to be (common level = .05 significance level says you are 95% sure, 5% unsure)
- 61Statistical Significancegoal is to determine if results are reliable . alpha level you choose indicates how confident you wish to be . the larger the sample size. larger effect size more likely to obtain significant results.
- 62Effect sizestrength of relationship between variables
- 63Effect Size providesscale of values, Generally: Small-.15 (.10-.20) Medium-.30 Large-.40 Ex: Pearson r correlation-strength of linear association between 2 variables
- 64Milgram's obedience experimentstudy of obedience to authority figure
- 65Belmont ReportEthical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research
- 663 Basic principlesBeneficence, Autonomy, Justice
- 67Beneficencehigh benefit/low risk ratio, not ok to use people unless there is some benefit
- 68Autonomyrespect for persons, able to make their own decision whether to participate or not
- 69Justicefairness, do not take from participants unless you give back
- 70what are the 3 basic principles outlined in the Belmont ReportBeneficence, Autonomy, Justice
- 71Risks in Psychological researchloss of confidentiality
- 72Deceptionexperimenter disguises true purpose of experiment
- 73Informed consentinformation given to participant before experiment to determine their voluntariness
- 74Debriefingproviding information about purpose of research after the experiment
- 75IRBInstitutional Review Board reviews research, composed of at least 5 individuals
- 76IACUCInstitutional Animal Care Use Committee
- 77Exempt researchno risk, archival, anonymous surveys, questionnaires, educational tests
- 78APA Ethics CodeAmerican Psychological Association
- 79Ethical principlesguidelines to protect humans as participants in research; guidelines to protect animals in research
- 80Fraudfabricating data, making it up
- 81Plagiarismcopying someone elses comments as your own, not citing
- 82Single case experimental designsMeasured from baseline period (no treatment) to treatment periods to compare changes
- 83to control for alternative explanation in single case experimental designsReversal or withdrawal design Called an ABA design Baseline (A) ? Treatment (B) ? Baseline (A)
- 84Single case experimental designs is also calledsingle-subject designs
- 85Reversal or withdrawal design is called anABA design
- 86An ABA design isBaseline (A), Treatment (B), Baseline (A)
- 87ABA can be tested how many timesseveral
- 88If ethical implications are at risk then end withB (treatment), not applicable to behaviors that shouldn't or cant be reversed such as reading or drug use.
- 89Multiple Baseline DesignsAcross subjects, across behaviors, across settings, changes observed under multiple circumstances, determines that the manipulation caused change, rules out other events, shows that at the point treatment was introduced behavior changed.
- 90Across subjectsSmoking reduction. Change in behavior in each subject at different times rules out other explanations. Reinforces that IV was responsible for improvement.
- 91Across BehaviorsReward system applied to different behaviors in same subject. Behaviors improved shows effectiveness of IV.
- 92Across Settingssame behavior measured in different settings (home, work, school). IV introduced at different times in each setting
- 93Multiple baseline design is useful forUseful for studying the effects of a teaching practice in which two or more behaviors, people, or settings can be tracked on a single experiment. Useful for teaching skills.
- 94Multiple Baseline Design as a toolIn the case of academic skills this offers the teacher an important tool as it is often the case that once the skill have been learned then a return to baseline will not produce a change in performance.
- 95Multiple Baseline Design, what is not necessaryNot necessary to return a participant to baseline condition. Can demonstrate causal relation without having to terminate intervention.
- 96Multiple Baseline Design an educationUseful for teaching skills. What if a teacher wants to know the impact of fluency training for 3 students in the classroom? DV- Increased reading skills IV- Fluency training program
- 97True Experimental designBasic Experiments, Posttest-Only Design, Pretest-Posttest Design, Independent Groups Design, Repeated Measures Design.
- 98Basic Experiments2 IVs each with at least 2 levels, Provide highest degree of internal validity
- 99Posttest-Only Design2 equal groups (randomly assigned), measure effect of IV on DV
- 100Pretest-Posttest Designtest participants before IV is introduced (to assure the 2 groups are equal, not needed if random assignment was used) and test again after manipulation
- 101Independent Group DesignDesign- 2 equal groups (randomly assigned), each group is given different IVs
- 102Repeated Measures Design1 group, all IVs are given to same group
- 103Quasi-Experimental DesignsUsed when control features of experimental designs cannot be achieved and when a true experiment is not possible. More difficult to determine cause due to lack of random assignment.
- 104Reasons for using a Quasi-Experimental DesignsFor example, the independent variable cannot be manipulated. Internal validity may be affected. Timing is late. Budget constraints.
- 105How many Quasi-experimental designs types are there6
- 1066 types of Quasi-Experimental DesignsOne-Group Posttest-Only , One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design, Nonequivalent Control Group Design, Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design , Propensity Score Matching of Nonequivalent Treatment & Control Groups Interrupted Time Series design
- 107One-Group Posttest-onlyno control group
- 108one-group pretest-posttestthreats to internal validy
- 109Nonequivalent Control Group2 non equal groups
- 110Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttestmost useful
- 111Propensity Score Matching of Nonequivalent Treatment & Control Groupsstatistical calculation to match several participant variables
- 112Interrupted Time Series Designmeasures variable over extended period of time
- 113Threats to internal ValidityHistory, Maturation, Testing, Instrument decay, Regression toward mean
- 114Historyoutside influences (confounding events) interfering between 1st & 2nd measurements, not part of manipulation. Ex: Is change due to manipulation or event (argument) that occurred at same time?
- 115Maturationchange within subject during manipulation Ex: Is change due to manipulation or fatigue, hungry, wiser, experience?
- 116Testingchange in subjects behavior due to test itself Ex: Is change due to manipulation or has test increased their skills, taking test is too difficult?
- 117Instrument decayHuman or equipment fails Ex: Is change due to manipulation or is equipment not working properly, experimenter become tired, decreased attention, forgetting?
- 118Regression toward meanthose who measured at extremes (unusually high/low) become closer to average when measured on different days/times. Appears to be due to manipulation although it may be due to measure not being reliable.
- 119how many developmental designs are there3
- 120developmental designsCross-Sectional Method, Longitudinal Method, Sequential Method
- 121Cross-Sectional Methodpeople of different ages are studied and compared
- 122Longitudinal Methodsame group is observed over various parts in time in their life.
- 123Sequential Methodcombination of Cross-Sectional Method and Longitudinal Method
- 124Cross sectional methodsimilar to Independent Groups Design, persons of different ages measured at the same point in time. Cohort-group of people born at same time, exposed to same events, same influences, same demographics.
- 125Cohortgroup of people born at same time, exposed to same events, same influences, same demographics. "Cross sectional method"
- 126Longitudinal Methodsimilar to Repeated Measures Design, same group is observed over various pts in time in their life. To study pattern on various variables, social/emotional adjustments, personality dimensions, pet interaction
- 127Sequential MethodCross-sectional-study groups of certain age and then Longitudinal-study those people for partial time span and tested again, shorter time span than actual longitudinal study. Ex: study in changes in self-esteem at various ages over time
- 128according to the belmont report, which principle refers to the need for research to maximize benefits and minimize any possible harmful effects (risks) of participation?Beneficence
- 129The real purpose of the Milgram study was to studyobedience to authroity
- 130APA Ethics Code was developed by theAmerican Psychological Association
- 131The fabrication (making it up) of data is know asFraud
- 132Before conducting the experiment, Tony explains to the participants the purpose of the study and tells them that participation is voluntary; they can withdraw if they want and are asked to sign a paper. this process is known asInformed Consent
- 133which of the following is a potential risk that a participant may be concerned about during a research experimentLoss of Confidentiality
- 134The Committee to review animal research is theIACUC
- 135Autonomy refers toIndividuals are able to make a decision whether to participate or not
- 136Anonymous questionnaires, surveys and educational tests are all considered ____ researchexempt
- 137correlation coefficientit is a statistic that describes how strongly variables are related to one another.
- 138A correlation of 0.00 indicates thatthere is no relationship between variables
- 139What happens when a correlation is nearer to 1.00(plus or minus)the relationship between the variables becomes stronger
- 140which of the following is a measure of central tendencyMedian
- 141which of the following is one of the three basic ways of describing results of research investigationsComparing group percentages
- 142Effect size is thestrength of the relationship between variables
- 143which of the following is not one of the three basic ways of describing research result?regressing scores to the average
- 144A ____ of exam scores reveals how many students received a given score on the examfrequency distribution
- 145A Pearson r correlation coefficient describes the (____) and the (____) of a linear relationship between two interval scale or ratio scale variables.direction; strength
- 146The levels of nominal scale variables are simplydifferent categories or groups
- 147which of the following designs use a reversal of a manipulationABA design
- 148In which type of multiple-baseline design are several different behaviors of a single subject measured over timeacross behaviors
- 149In a single-case experimental design, the observation of a participants behavior before the manipulated treatment is referred to as abaseline period
- 150Which of the following methods involves studying persons of different ages at only one point in timeCross-sectional
- 151A developmental researcher is interested in how self-esteem develops across the lifespan. He identifes 20 children in the first grade and has them fill out a series of questionnaires. He has them fill out the same questionnaires each year untilthe longitudinal method
- 152while conducting a test for anxiety a boy slips off his chair causing anxiety this is an example ofhistory effects
- 153a researcher is conducting a study on how couples communicate. he has 5 research assistants watch videos of couples having conversations and take detailed notes. his assistants become tired and start making mistakesinstrumental decay
- 154the sequential method is a combination betweenlongitudinal and cross-sectional methods.
- 155____ is defined as any time-related factor, such as fatigue, hunger, or boredom of the participant that might result in a change between the pretest and post-test measures of the dependent variable.Maturation
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