Karteikarten
Cognitive Semester 2
Karten in diesem Stapel (114)
- 1MemoryFaculty by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved when needed.
- 2Memory taxonomiesMultiple models exist that are used to categorise memories. Can be categorised by time, content.
- 3Modal model of memory.Atkinson & Shiffrin.
- 4Sensory MemoryIconic memory, Echoic memory.
250ms-500ms for iconic. - 5Sperling's ExperimentsVery brief presentation (50ms) of letter arrays. Two conditions: whole report: only reported first 4-5 letters, and partial report: reported complete rows even for large arrays
- 6Short term memoryattention to info moves it from sensory to STM. 30-60s. 5-9 elements. Boosted by active rehearsal and chunking.
- 7Miller's number 7'memorise the following series of letters'. on average participants get 7+-2 correct
- 8Long Term MemoryInfo can be transferred and retrieved to and from the STM and LTM. Unlimited duration and capacity.
- 9Long term memory systems: Squire and TulvingLTM: Declarative (explicit) - memories you are aware of and you can express. Non-declarative (implicit) - memories difficult to bring into awareness.
- 10Episodic memoryepisodes of your life that you remember. Include contextual information such as when are where they occurred.
- 11Semantic memorygeneral facts about the world you know.
Abstracted from contextual information. - 12Procedural memorySkills, habits etc
- 13Processes and systemsmemory processes ( encoding, storage, retrieval) and memory systems (taxonomies categorising memories) aren't mutually exclusive. Rather, they describe the same ability from different perspectives.
- 14Working MemoryUsed to manipulate information in the STM. Maintaining information while being distracted. Making information in LTM accessible for processing. Combining information in novel ways.
- 15Reading span task. Daneman & Carpenter.Judge the veracity of the following sentences and remember the last word of each sentence.
Wm has shorter duration than STM: 3s. 3-5 elements. - 16Baddeley & Hitch: Multi component modelCentral executive: coordination of storage systems and control of attention to stimuli, VSS, Episodic buffer: binding of multi modal information to form episodic memories, Phonological loop -> LTM
- 17Lashley - Search for the 'engram'trained rats to navigate maze. Created lesions in different parts of the brain and tested effects on maze performance. Not the location but the size of the lesion predicted performance meaning many different and distributed parts of the brain support memory.
- 18Memory in the brainfrontal cortex: coordination of information, working memory.
Temporal cortex: spatial memory storage, episodic memory storage.
Amygdala: implicit and emotional memory formation.
Hippo-campus: Explicit memory formation
Cerebellum: Implicit memory formation - 19Mental time travel (chronesthesia)Capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future.
- 20Reminiscence bumpsuperior memory for events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood
- 21Flashbulb memoriesemotionally significant or shocking
- 22Jill Pricefirst person to have received a diagnosis of hyperthymesia - highly superior autobiographical memory
- 23Direct Memory testsinstructed encoding and explicit retrieval: participants are instructed to memorise information. During testing, they are asked to retrieve the information they memorised,
- 24Indirect memory testsIncidental encoding and implicit retrieval: Participants think about the information but are not instructed to memorise it. During testing, they are asked to complete an activity seemingly unrelated to memory.
- 25Recallfree recall: recall as many items as possible
Serial recall: recall items in order of their presentation
Cued recall: recall items with the help of a cue - 26Levels of processing: Craik and Tulving's experimentsdepth of processing, first structural then phonemic then categorical. Is this word in capital letters? Does this word rhyme with weight? Is this word a type of fish? Findings: deeper processing at encoding can aid memory.
- 27Spacing effectMassed practice: single, lengthy study period
Distributed practice: multiple, short study periods. Memory is generally better after distributed than massed practice. The longer the spacing, the better the memory is. - 28Serial Position effectInformation encoded first (primary) or last (recency) is recalled best.
- 29Testing effect: Roediger and Karpickeconditions: study a text, restudy or recall text, recall after 5 min, 2 days or 2 weeks.
Findings: Retrieval practice improves memory for delays longer than a few minutes - 30Encoding specificity principle: Godden And baddeley diver studymatching context at encoding retrieval aids episodic memory
Memory is best for matched encoding and retrieval context - 31Transfer appropriate processing: Morris, Bransford and Franks'matching processing at encoding and retrieval aids episodic memory
- 32How is semantic information stored in memory?option 1: separately stored representations of information and their various relations. Not economical.
option 2 : storage representations and their relations in a more economical network - 33Collins & Quillian's hierarchical network modelaccess of a concept representations through spreading activation between nodes via their connecting paths. Including basic, superordinate and subordinate level.
- 34Collins & Loftus's associative network modelhierarchy has since been replaced by semantic relatedness.
- 35Semantic dementiasyndrome of progressive deterioration in semantic memory, leading to the loss of knowledge about concepts, objects. people and words.
- 36Forming concepts: categoriesSemantic memory enables us to form representations of categories based on regularities in the world, thereby allowing us to make predictions about what will happen next.
- 37classical theory of categorisationcategories are defined by necessary and sufficient features
- 38criticisms of the classical theory of categorisationfamily resemblance: different members of a category can share different features
central tendency: categories exhibit and averaged ideal
graded membership: some members are more typical for a category than others - 39Measuring categorisation: Armstrong's typicality experimentsgraded membership exists even for odd numbers
- 40Prototype theory of categorisation: RoschCategories are determined by a mental representation that is a weighted average of all category members. This prototype may or may not be an actual entity.
- 41Prototype theory of categorisation criticismsHow can people tell the size of categories? How can people add new members to a category?
- 42Exemplar theory of categorisationCategories consist of separate representations of the physical features of experienced examples of the category. People can tell the category sizes and can add new members.
- 43Exemplar theory of categorisation : criticismsHow can people retrieve all category members to define a category if retrieval is based on category membership? theoretical circularity?. How to people form abstract categories of things without physical features?.
- 44explanation theory of categorisationCategories are based on common causal characteristics rather than physical features. categories can be created ad hoc using world knowledge and explanations
- 45Barsalou's experimentsdo ad hoc categories have the same features as common categories? High average agreement among participants regarding category membership, typicality of member and production of exemplars. Ad hoc categories are similar to common categories in that they exhibit family resemblance, central tendency and graded membership.
- 46Forming concepts: SchemataSchemata capture commonly encountered aspects of life. They can be thought of as explanation based event categories.
- 47Forming concepts: ScriptsCapture the order of vents for common aspects of life. They can be thought of as temporally ordered schemata.
- 485 primary schema processes: Alba and HasherSelection, Abstraction, interpretation, Integration, Reconstruction.
- 495 primary schema processes: SelectionSelection of information central to schema.
Bransford & Johnson: study text without given a topic, topic given after or before reading: schema activation benefits encoding of schema relevant information. - 505 primary schema processes: AbstractionCarmichael: the surface form of information (ambiguities in pictures, verbatim wording) is converted into a more abstract representation that captures the meaning but is schema consistent
- 515 primary schema processes: InterpretationJohnson: glass on floor, interpretation is used to 'fill in the gaps' in a story with schema consistent information
- 525 primary schema processes: IntergrationBransford: tree/box, integration of information is used to form schema consistent holistic representations
- 535 primary schema processes: ReconstructionBarlett: war of the ghosts, details were reconstructed to be simplified and fit cultural schema
Brewer and treyens: recall everything from office - 54Thorndike Law of effectResponses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation.
- 55What is cognition?basis for 'intellegent' behaviour.
Overides reflexive, habitual responses in favour of more complex, more long term goals.
Controls/orchestrates sensory, memory and motor systems.
Key neural structure in animals: Prefrontal cortex - 56Core/basic executive functionsworking memory, inhibitory control, flexibility
- 57higher order/more insight related executive functionsobject permanence, self recognition, mental time travel, theory of mind, tool use/ causal reasoning
- 58Scala naturae 'ladder of being'fish - amphibians - reptiles - birds - mammals
is insight related cognition soely a feature of mammals? - 59Birds vs mammalssomewhere along the evolutionary path that led from fish to chimpanzee a change occurred in the nervous system which transformed an animal which simply behaved into an animal which at the same time informed its mind of the reasons of its behaviour.
- 60Working memory in animalsDelayed response task for monkeys. One of two cue lights is illuminated for 1s (right or left). Then the cue is turned of for 2-3s. The monkey has to choose between left or right. Delay activity in example units in the prefrontal cortex. Delay activity in the monkey's PFC bridges the time gap between stimulus and choice: a neural basis for working memory.
- 61Nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL)Pallium: neuroanatomical term for the grey and white matter covering the cerebrum. working memory task in homing pigeons. Directed forgetting procedure. Recording of single unit activity in the NCL during task performance.
- 62Working memory in crowsdelayed match to sample task: disentangle working memory from reward prediction and motor preparation. Crows reach very high performance levels on this task. Despite the structural and organisational differences between the NCL and the PFC, both regions might be functionally analogue.
- 63The bee brainsmall - 0.5mm
only 1mil neurones
large compared to fruit flies (100000) - 64working memory in honey beesperformance in delayed match to sample task indicates a working memory of up to 6.5s
- 65Self recognition in animalsability to recognise oneself as an individual and to distinguish oneself from the environment and other individuals. Related to self awareness. Mirror test. High variability across individuals eg 75% of young adult chimpanzees pass test. linked to social skills. Cognitive rubicon separating humans and apes from the rest. Laminate cortex not a prerequisite for self recognition.
- 66Theory of mind in animalsravens adjust their behaviour according to whether a competitor observed the caching or not. Distinguishes between individuals with different knowledge.
- 67object permanence in animalsobjects continue to exist even when they cannot be directly observed. Carrion crows reach full piagetian object permanence. gradual development. Neural mechanisms unknown, likely to involve WM mechanisms.
- 68Eyewitness memorymemory for a crime or other dramatic event witnessed
- 69Loftus & PalmerHow fast were the cars going?
Wording influences eyewitness memory - 70Post event information effectmemory is altered to conform with misleading post event information
did the car pass the red car while it stopped at the stop/yield sign? - 71Memory replacement theorymisleading information replaces or overwrites the original information. Original information is permanently lost or altered.
- 72Blocking theorymisleading and original information coexist in memory. original information is blocked by newer information.
- 73Source monitoring theorymisleading post event information effect is caused by a source monitoring error.
Reality source monitoring error: information from other sources is mistaken for an experienced memory. - 74Effects of implicit social demandswatch shoplifting video, drink tonic or alcohol placebo, read narrative with/without misinformation. People thinking they consumed alcohol were more susceptible to misinformation. Implicit social demands can affect eyewitness testimony.
- 75Effects of stressSERE. Group speech with or without doctored video. Interrogation with or without photograph. Questionnaire with or without misinformation. All three forms of misleading post event information led to false memories. Unconscious transference: 84% of participants misidentified the person in the photo as their interrogator.
- 76Easterbrook hypothesisattention and arousal interact ad determine cue-utilisation.
- 77Weapon focus effectincrease in memory for a weapon along with a decline in memory for other details.
- 78Unusual item hypothesissurprising or unexpected objects attract an observer's attention due to their inconsistency with the activated schema
- 79Fawcett meta analysisanalysed weapon focus effect across 28 studies with 47 effect sizes. Larger effect sizes in threatening compared to non threatening situations. Larger effect sizes for unusual compared to neutral items.
Strong surprise from unusual items may lead to arousal levels similar to those evoked by weapons. - 80Waterman et al - children as eyewitnesseschildren tend to give an answer even if they don't know or don't understand the question.
Even adults sometimes respond to questions that they can't answer.
These effects are much stronger for closed than open questions. - 81False confessionsShaw&porter: memory implantation over 3 interviews . committed a crime or experienced a highly emotional event. Providing context accurate cues provided by caregiver report, included incontrovertible evidence, social pressure and suggestive retrieval techniques. Building rapport, facilitators and confirmatory feedback, pauses and silences, open ended prompts, disappointment and sympathy. 70% participants had false memories of committing a crime resulting in police contact.
- 82Sporer meta analysisis eyewitness confidence an indicator of memory accuracy? average accuracy-confidence correlation = .29, jurors often advised not to take eyewitness confidence into account.
- 83Repeated questioningrepeated questioning makes information easier to access (retrieval fluency)
higher retrieval fluency increases confidence independent of memory accuracy - 84Wixted and Well's reccomendationsOfficers should:
be aware of effects on eyewitness memory and confidence
minimise contamination of memory
control the conditions under which the eyewitness identification procedures are conducted.
use double bling procedures to minimise unconscious biases.
include only one suspect and at least 5 unknown innocent fillers to increase guessing chance
use adequate fillers so that the suspect doesn't stand out
caution witnesses that the suspect may not be in the lineup to minimise motivational effects.
assess confidence at the first time of the identification - 85EWT can be highly reliable if:memory is probed for the first time and isn't contaminated yet.
interview protocols are used to avoid suggestive questions and minimise guessing
investigator is sensitive to the witness's level of confidence - 86Cognitive interviewbased on memory principles to maximise the amount of correct information and minimise the amount of incorrect information from a witness.
Reinstate context
Encourage reporting of whatever is available
Start recalling at different points
take on different perspectives
don't interrupt the witness - 87Schacter's 7 sins of memorytransience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence
- 88Transiencedecreasing accessibility of memories over time
- 89Ebbinghaus experimentsrows of nonsense syllables - most forgetting occurs early, forgetting continues but at a slower pace
Decay: forgetting due to the passage of time
Interference: forgetting due to competition between memories - 90Thorndike's law of disusethe more time elapses without using a memory, the more the memory decays away until it is entirely forgotten
- 91McGeogh's critiquethe passage of time causes nothing itself, time is correlated with processes that cause forgetting
- 92Interferenceproactive interference: older memories impair the retrieval of new memories
retroactive interference: new memories impair retrieval of older memories - 93The Brown-peterson paradigmlearn list, complete distracting task, recall.
The more time passes, the greater the forgetting. - 94Absentmindednesslapses of attention that affect memory and learning
- 95blockinginformation is present but temporarily inaccessible
- 96misattributionattributing memories to an incorrect source
- 97Types of source informationperceptual: perceptual detail often higher for memories actual experienced than from other sources.
Contextual: context in which memory was acquired is consistent with an expected source
affective: emotional reaction in context of information
cognitive: mental processing of the information - 98SuggestibilityImplanted memories that never occurred.
- 99biasdistorting memories of the past based on current knowledge and beliefs
- 100persistenceunwanted recollections that cannot be forgotten
- 101amnesiaa deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or psychological trauma. retrograde = loss of ability to access memories prior to the event.
Anterograde= loss of ability to store new memories after the event
Photo-hypnotic: inability to recall events that took place under hypnosis until presented with a reversibility cue - 102morphology/morphemethe smallest unit of sound
- 103phonologyphenomes: sounds - roughly 40 in english language
- 104orthographywriting system, grapheme= letters - visual representation of a phenome
- 105pragmaticsthe meaning within the meaning
- 106grice's maximsquantity, quality, relation, manner
- 107methods used to test speech production: timing of speech onset, hesitaitons and pausesa delay in initiating speech may be the result of processing problems
Schacter et al found more ahs an uhs in speech for humanities compared to natural science lectures.
hesitations provide insight into mental processes.
larger numbers of words in the lexicon result in more hesitations - 108methods used to test speech production: speech errorsan error occurs every 500 sentences
slips of the tongue - 109models of speech productionevidence from speech errors resulted in the development of computational models of speech production that conceptualise production as a series of processes with rules.
- 110Tip of the tongue stateinterference from conflicting information results in hesitation or tip of the tongue state
activation and competition between related items 'blocks' retrieval of the target word - 111language production is a series of processescompetitive processses underpin selection of concepts: hesitations in speech, blend errors, tip of the tongue state.
production requires concepts to be activated, morphological elements to be added& words to be articulated: speech errors respect synaptic, word and phonological categories, tip of the tongue state - 112challenges of language comprehensionambiguity in the speech stream
ambiguity at the word level
ambiguity at the phenome level - 113word level ambiguityhomonyms= words that sound and spelt the same
Homophones=words that sound the same
homographs= words that are spelt the same - 114—
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- Karteikarten am Cognitive Semester 2, erstellt von Jess Wakefield-Boyd am 03/06/2019.
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- Jess Wakefield-Boyd
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