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- 1IntuitionFrom a hunch or feeling
- 2TenacityFrom habit or superstition
- 3AuthorityFrom an expert
- 4Rational Method (Rationalism)From reasoning: logical conclusion
- 5EmpiricismFrom direct sensory observation
- 6Scientific method (observation)Observation (inductive reasoning)
Using a small data set to form a general statement - 7Scientific Method (Form a hypothesis)Form a hypothesis
Identifying variables & choosing an explanation that seems most plausible - 8Scientific Method (Generate a testable prediction)Results in a situation or event that can be observed or measured
Deductive reasoning: begin a general statement and then make specific deductions - 9Scientific Knowledge (Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations)Actual Research, Data collection
- 10Scientific Method (Use observations to assess the original hypothesis)Support, Refute and Refine
- 11Cautions about PseudoscienceJust because something is called "science" doesn't mean its science. (astrological science -- it is missing empirical evidence)
Creations of new disciplines & techniques - 12Basic VS. Applied researchBasic: fundamental or pure research, research that describes, predicts, and/or explains fundamental principles of behaviour, solve theoretical issues,
Applied: Has direct, or immediate relevance to the solution of a real world, practical problem. Ex. How can we train people to be good drivers? - 13TheoryA set of statements about a behavioural phenomenon that:
Best summarizes and organizes existing knowledge, provides a tentative answer about the phenomenon, serves the basis for making predictions about the behaviour.
Describes, explains, predicts - 14Good Theories1. Advanced knowledge by generating a lot of research
2. Falsification: theories are set up to be false, confidence in a theory can never be absolute, KISS symbol (keep it simple stupid) - 15Getting started + Common mistakesCollect information: how will you know you have enough? Keep an open mind: Can you continue on?
Lack of interest, topic not interested, too safe or too easy, too difficult, too broad - 16Asking Empirical Questions"All research beings with a question"
An empirical question has 2 important features (It must be answerable data & terms of the question must be precisely defined) - 17VariablesCharacteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different people, animals, cells and objects
- 18MeasurementA process in which the nature, quantity, or intensity of something is determined
- Define construct
- Measurement instrument - 19TheoryWhy something is occurring, has occurred or will occurred.
Helps in organizing and unifying observations
Potentially generate predictions about behaviour - 20ConstructsVariables that are hypothetical factors, attributes, or mechanisms that cannot be observed directly but are inferred from some behaviour
Attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behaviour in a theory - 21Operational definitionsMethod of defining and measuring a construct
Specifies a measurement procedure for observable behaviours
Consult literature
Allow for scientific replication
Limitations (not the same as a construct, only measuring what can be observed)
Easy to leave out components of construct within the definition - "confidence" - 22How can we be sure that the measurements obtained from an operational definition actually measuring the intangible constructValidity
- 23ValidityExtent to which a measurement procedure is actually measuring what it claims to be measuring
- 24Methods for assessing validity of measurementsConstruct Validity
- Face Validity
- Content validity
- Convergent, Divergent/discriminant validity
Criterion-related validity
- Concurrent validity
- Predictive validity - 25Construct ValidityThe measurements of a variable behave in exactly the same way as the variable itself, or whether the tool (operational definition) is the best for the construct and accurately assesses it
Difficult to establish
Requires many research studies to examine measurement procedure in a variety of situations
Achieved by repeatedly demonstrating other types of validity (face, content, convergent and divergent/discriminant) - 26Face ValiditySuperficial appearance or false value
Subjective judgment
Does the measure make sense? - 27Concurrent ValidityA new measurement technique is directly related to the scores from another, better established technique
Establishes consistency related to the scores between two measurements procedures of the same variable - 28Content ValidityDegree to which the measured variable appears to have adequately sampled from the potential domains of questions that might relate to the construct of interest
- 29Convergent validityCreating two different methods to measure the same construct, then showing a strong relationship between values obtained from the two measures
- observing children on playground and teachers rating regarding their aggressive behaviour - 30Divergent ValidityDemonstrating that the measurements on one specific construct does not include a different construct in the same meaure
- 31Criterion-Related ValidityUses some standard or criterion (behaviour) that is known to indicate a construct accurately
- the scholastic aptitude test (SAT) is valid to the extent that it distinguishes between students that do well in college versus that those that do not
Verified by comparing with another (behavioural) measure of the same construct in which the researcher has confidence
- Concurrent, Predictive - 32Predictive validityWhen measurements of a construct accurately predict behaviour according to a theory
Example: does your research method mark predict the quality of your honour's thesis - 33ReliabilityA measurement procedure produces identical results when it is used repeatedly to measure the same individual under the same conditions
Stability or consistency of measurement
A measure is reliable if there is very little measurement error
Observer Error: Disruptive behaviours or equipment used
Environment chances: Time of day, room temperature, lighting
Participant changes: Stress, transient mood, health, fatigue-level, motivation - 34Measures of reliabilityTest-retest: Same measurement procedure for the same group of individuals at two different times
inter-observer reliability: degree of agreement between two or more observers that simultaneously record measurements independently
Internal consistency: Refers to the extent to which the scores on test items/questions correlate with each other; split half reliability - 35Reliability and VariabilityA measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable
However, it is not necessary for a measurement to be valid for it to be reliable - 36NominalQualitative or categorical
Names, labels, classifying (Blood type, sex, occupation)
Cannot be ordered/ranked
Categories should be:
Mutually Exclusive (fit into 1 category)
Exhaustive (all cases fit into some category) - 37OrdinalOrdering and ranking categories
Organized Sequentially
Size (XS, S, M, L, XL)
Grades (A, B, C, D, F)
Condition (None, Mild, Moderate, Severe)
All are mutually exclusive and exhaustive
Difference between categories cannot be determined (not necessarily equal) - 38IntervalQuantitative or numerical
Sequential and all categories are the same size (equal interval)
Can determine magnitude in differences
No natural Zero
- Celsius and Fahrenheit - 39RatioNumerical or quantitative
Sequential and all the categories are the same size
True Zero Point: representing the complete absence of a variable being measured
Direction and difference in magnitude
Compare measurements in terms of ratios
- Weight, distance, speed, age, reaction time
- 5om is twice as far as 25m - 40Modalities of measurementsSelf report
Physiological measures
Behavioural measures - 41Self-Report MeasuresParticipants provide responses to questions or statements related to construct
Advantages
- Most direct way to assess a construct
- More apparently valid
Disadvantages
- Easy to distort; better self image, influenced by presence of researcher or wording of questions, hello-goodbye effect (exaggerate at start and minimize at end), Undermines validity of measurement - 42Physiological measuresPhysiological functioning of body's nervous and endocrine system
Galvanic skin response (GSR), heart rate, brain imaging techniques (PET, MRI, CT), etc.
Advantage
- Objective (accurate, reliable, well-defined measurements)
Disadvantages
- Expensive or unavailable equipment
- Presence of monitoring devices creates unnatural situation (may react differently) - 43Behavioural MeasuresObserving behaviours as they occur
Advantages
- Many options; select behaviour(s) that best define & measure construct
- Tailor to individual patients
- Behaviour may be variable of interest (not an indicator of hypothetical construct) e.g., disruptive behaviour
Disadvantages
- Behaviour may be temporary or situational; measure cluster of related behaviours - 44Other Aspects of MeasurementMultiple measures
-Use 2 or more different procedures to measure the same variable
Advantage
- Usually provides more confidence in validity of the same measurements
Disadvantages
- Complex multivariate statistical analysis
- 2 variable may not behave the same way and confuses interpretation of results
- Desynchrony; lack of agreement between 2 measurements,
one measure may be more sensitive
different dimensions of the variable change at different times - 45Ceiling Effects Floor EffectsMeasurements range is restricted at high end/ceiling and go no further
Measurements range is restricted at low end/floor - 46Single blind Double-blindStudy conducted by someone who does not know the expected results
The experimenter and participants do not know the expected results (drug studies) - 47Measurements; acting/subject rolesGood: Try to please researcher
Negativistic: sabotage
Apprehensive: conceal behaviours/attitudes
Faithful: following instructions (good participation!!) - 48Inferential StatisticsAnswer general questions about a population
- 49Descriptive StatisticsSummarizes the data collected on the sample
Generalize from a sample to population - 50Sample StatisticsDescribe or summarize the entire set of scores in a sample
Provide information about the corresponding summary values for the population
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- Karteikarten am Ohne Titel, erstellt von Rachelle Dunsford am 31/01/2020.
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- Rachelle Dunsford
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