Cognition 6+7

Cognition 6+7

1. LTM/STM processes

   • division & interaction
   • LTM
     • our archive of memories
     • Interaction WM
       • - adds to understanding = background info - knows movie bond 007processing that a friend is saying that she watched the movie last night with boyfriend LGM for the guy
       • Serial-position curve
         • memory is better for words at the beginning & end of the list
         • The primacy effect
           • more likely to remember the beginning of the list  - more time to rehearse/less spread attention - Murdoch's curve  - Dewey Rundus
         • Recency effect
           • more likely to remember words at the end of the list - more recently presented + storage - Murray Glanzer & Anita Cunitz
   • Coding
     • refers to the form in which stimuli are represented - depends on circumstance
     • Visual
       • - STMZ> remember pattern task - LTM> visualize person/place from the past 
     • Audiotory
       • - STM> phonolgical similarity effect - LTM> hear next song in pause after recent song
     • Semantic STM
       • - Delos Wickens experiment proactive interference - meaning & categories
       • Release from proactive inference
         • If the items or pairs to be learned are conceptually related to one another, then proactive interference has a greater effect
       • LTM
         • - Jacqueline Sachts - mesured recognition memory - exact wording or just general
         • Recognition memory
           • = identification of a stimuli that was encountered before - measure first stimuli then stimuli + more that wasn't there before
   • Location brain
     • - seperate parts but overlap - Neuropsychological studies
     • LTM
       • - Henry Molaison> hippocampus damage made it impossible to form new long-term memories - Clive Wearing> damage hippocampus/amygdala/temporal lobe: always within 2m
     • WM
       • - prefrontal cortex - visual cortex
     • STM
       • - Patient K.F> damage to parietal lobe: bad STM but intact LTM
     • Brain imaging
       • - Charan Ranganath & Mark Esposito- Hippocampus/other medial temporal lobe structures involved in holding information st

2. Episodic + semantic memory

   • - episodic = memories - semantic = straight facts - Endel Tulving = explicit memories
   • Episodic
     • - fades more than semantic
     • Mental time travel
       • - Tulving - episodic> ability to travel back in time memories
       • Self-knowing/remembering
         • reliving an experience> feelings ppl environment
       • K.C
         • lost his ability for episodic memories - cannot relive personal experiences> hippocampus - have semantic tho
     • Remember/know procedure
       • - measures familiarity (looks familiar but can't remember details) / know - measures recollection (episodic remember specific experiences) /remember
       • Semanticization of remote memory
         • - loss of episodic detail memory of long ago event - remember fades more than know - long term & short term- Raluca Petrican & co
   • Semantic
     • - facts you don't know when where you learned it - not connected to own experience
     • Knowing
       • - memory that doesn't involve mental time travel - Tulving
       • Italian woman ex
         • - suffered encephalitis - could form episodic memories - semantic facts totally gone
   • Brain imaging
     • - results may differ alot - fMRI scanner> recall semantic/episodic - = different parts tho lill overlap
     • Interaction
       • - Knowledge affects experience
         • - influences how we experience/percieve situations - expectations & behavour
       • - Autographical m contains both
         • - interacts often when we describe/relive things
         • Personal semantic m
           • = facts associated with personal experiences -> Autographically significant semantic memories = personal episodes
     • Constructive episodic simulation hypothesis
       • = episodic memories are extracted & recombined to construct simulations of future events -> both semantic+episodic neded

3. Procedural memory

   •  also called skill memory(hard to explain)
   • Priming
     • the presentation of one stimulus - the priming stimuli - affects the reaction to another 'test stimulus'
   • Conditioning
     • Classic conditioning of emotions
       • emotional response to memories-> learning by them expl/impl
   • Implicit memory
     • = learning skill without concious remembering
     • K.C
       • - who couldn't form LTM - learns every time but thinks it's the first time every time
     • Repetition priming
       • responds quickly to word you've heard before - stimulus 1 is the same or very similiar - and can do so without awarness of previous priming
       • Peter Graf
         • make sure don't remember 1) amnesia pat with korsakoffs syndrome 2) pat under treatment alcolism without amnesia 3) pat been under treatment alcolism without amnesia : 1 lack explicit recall but same implicit
       • Propaganda effect
         • more likely to rate statements they've seen before as being true

4. Encoding & LGM

   • encoding = process used to get information into the LTM
   • Retrieval
     • retransferring information from LGT to remember - Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart - close relation between retrieval & encoding
     • Maintenance rehearsal
       • repeating without understanding meaning or connections to other information = often poor results
       • Shallow processing
         • number repeated without much attenention to meaning ->focused on physical features of number
     • Elaborative rehearsal
       • relate information to something meaningful in order to remember = often good results
       • Deep processing
         • close attention & meaning & relation to other information
         • Relating to survival value
           • - James Nairne - biology evolutionary perspective on essential function of item
     • Levels of processing theory
       • - Craik & Endel Tulving  - shallow(physical), deeper(rhyme), deepest p(fill in blanks) - richness of representation-> linking to others
       • Deph of processing
         • - encoding  - what memory depends on - no clear definition outside memory test
       • Paired associate learning
         • - Gordon Bower & David Winzenz - Visual imagery - Words & image vs repeated words only
       • Self-reference effect
         • - T.B Rogers & co - better memory when reference to yourself
       • Generation effect
         • - Norman Slameka & Peter Graf - generated knowledge to learn
       • Organizing information
         • enhance learning
         • Retrieval cue
           • - mental framework - similarity cues that make you remember better - most effective when created by person self
           • Free/cued recall
             • simply asked to recall stimuli/put stimuli retrieval cue to
             • Encoding specificity
               • - learn items along with a contex - return to the location of encoding - Diving over under water experiment by Godden/Baddeley
             • State dependent learning
               • internal state due to learning item
           • Transfer-appropriate processing
             • - Donald Morris & co - memory better by doing the same cognitive task on encoding vs retrieval
     • Retrieval practice
       • Testing effect
         • = enhanced performance due to retrival practice - actively creating & recreating material

5. Condsolidation

   • 'the process that transforms new memories from the fragile state to a more permanent state' ->resistant from disruption - Muller & Pilzecker
   • Synaptic consolidation
     • - takes place over minutes/hours - structural changes in synapses - synaptic change provides a record of 
     • Experiences=changes in synapses
       • Donald Hebb - pattern of structural changes for every experience
       • Greater transmitter release
         • increased firing
         • Long-term potentiation
           • - strenthen synaptic transmission - result of structural changes - enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimuli
       • Chemical reactions
         • synthesis of new proteins
   • Systems consolidation
     • - gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain - takes place over months/years
     • Hippocampus & memory
       • - synapses in memory - synaptic consolidation - how hippocampus does system consolidation & responds to stimuli- Hebb
       • Standard model of consolidation
         • - proposes that incomming information activate areas in the cortex - h decrease of respons over time
         • Cortex
           • - activation is distributed over several areas of cortex depending on type of memory - communicate with hippocampus
         • Retrograde amnesia
           • memory loss right before an injury
           • Graded amnesia
             • - characteristic of retrograde amnesia - amnesia worse closer to the injury less further away/early - strenght in cortical areas - cortex connection+hippocampus weaken by time
       • Reactivation
         • - major mechanism in consolidation - hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory - connecting cortex+hippocampus to other cortical areas
       • Multiple trace model of consolidation
         • - Nadel & Moskovitch - hippocampus part of retrieval of episodic memories - from discussion whether hippocampus is involved LTM
         • H change over time
           • - response changes over time - only for stimuli that lost their episodic character - h remains involved lillbit
   • Consolidation & sleep
     • - enhancing memory - reactivation process strong during sleep - sleep eliminate environmental stimuli that might disrupt c - some more than others/expected testing
   • Consolidation & retrieval
     • Update memory
       • - form a new map - modify to deal with new circumstances - not let the past hinder us to deal with new situation/memory
       • Reconsolidation
         • - Nader & co - when you retrieval a memory it becomes fragile as from start- easy to reconstruct- must reconsolidate to strenghten
         • Fragile
           • 1) first consolidation 2) first reconsolidation 3) every retrieval lillbit - Hupbach reminder experiment 2 lists remember disrupt
         • PTSD
           • - treatment to reconstruct memories with substance - Brunet