LTM : encoding and retrieval

LTM : encoding and retrieval

1. Encoding: process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM(coding is the form in which information is represented e.g visually or by its sound)

   • Ways to encode
     • Elaborative rehearsal
       • Maintenance rehearsal maintains information in STM/WM but not effective in transferring to LTM
       • more effective; occurs when thinking about the meaning of an item or make connections between the item and something you know.
       • Craik and Lockhart: Levels of processing theory
         • memory is determined by depth of processing an item receive
           • Depth of processing is determined by nature of of task during encoding
             • Shallow processing
               • Involves little attention to meaning but occurs when attention is focused on physical features
                 • occurs in maintenance rehearsal too, item is plainly repeated
             • Deep processing
               • Involves close attention, focus on item's meaning and relating to something else
             • note there is medium as well
             • Craik and Tulving Experiment to illustrate varying depth
           • Beaten: Too ambiguous
             • Hard to define qn depth
             • circular reasoning: depth of processing has not been defined independently of memory performance
   • Take away: memory retrieval is affected by how it is encoded
   • affects retrieval
     • factors that aid encoding
       • Organization
         • Remembering words in a category serve as retrieval cue - a word or stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
           • Spontaneous groupings)
         • (Bower et al Information is presented in organized manner
           • Organizational trees
         • Meaningful Framework
           • easier to comprehend, link one part of information to another to create meaning
             • Balloon experiment
       • Create connections
         • placing words in complex sentences(Craik and Tulving)
           • creates more connections between the word and other things which act as cue to help retrieval
             • Chicken experiment
         • forming visual images
           • Paired associate learning (Bower and Winzenz)
             • Ss who form mental picture of nouns have higher recall rate than those who repeated berbally
         • Linking words to yourself
           • self-reference effect (T.B Rogers and coworkers): Memory is better if you asked to relate a word
             • Ss more likely to remember the word they rated as describing temselves
               • words become linked to themselves, they act as the retrieval cue
       • Active creation
         • Generating Information
           • Generation effect(Slameka and Graf): Generating material yourself enhances memory and attention
             • Read group vs Generate group
         • Testing
           • (Roediger and Karpike) testing effect: enhanced performance after much delay

2. Retrieval: process of transferring information from LTM to working memory

   • ways to help retrieval
     • Retrieval cues: words or other stimuli that help us remember information stored in our memory
       • Word
         • Free recall vs Cued recall(presented with retrieval cue to aid in recall of previously experienced stimuli
           • Tulving and Pearlstone's experiment: 40 vs 75 percent in recall rate
           • Tylo Mantala: 600 nouns, 3 words associated with each for recall
             • 90% see noun+ generated on their own
             • 55% see noun+ given words
             • 17% no noun + given words
       • Conditions
         • matching conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed in encoding
           • encoding specificity: matching context/location when encoding and retrieval occurs
             • Godden and Baddeley "diving experiment": best result when encoding and retrieval occurred in same location
               • Harry Grant et al : Ss listened to background noise of cafeteria, Ss did better when study and test condition match
           • state-dependent learning: matching the internal mood present
             • learning associated with particular internal state
               • (Eich and Matcalfe) memory is better when mood is the same
                 • Ss listen to happy or sad music to put into positive or negative mood, learn the words(encoding), 2 days later set in happy or sad mood and put to test
           • transfer-appropriate processing: matching task involved
             • Donald Morris: meaning vs rhymiing condition
               • rhyming condition Ss do better as they experienced the same task during encoding and retrieval - based on sound
                 • 1. deeper processing at encoding does not always result in better retrieval as LOP propose
                   • Matching encoding and retrieval task result in better retrieval(over and beyond LOP)