Human Memory

Human Memory

1. Encoding

   • -Attention, which entails a selective focus on certain input, enhances encoding -Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in more durable memory codes -Structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding represent progressively deeper levels of processing  -Elaboration, the use of visual imagery, self-referent encoding, and increasing the motivation to remember can enhance encoding and retention 

2. Storage

   • -Information-processing theories propose that people have three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM) -Atkinson and Shiffrin posited incoming information passes through two temporary storage buffers before being placed into long-term memory -The three memory stores are not viewed as anatomical structures but as distinct types of memory
   • Sensory Memory
     • -Sensory memory preserves information in its original form for a a very brief time -Memory traces in the sensory store appear to decay in about one-quarter of a second
   • Short-Term Memory
     • -Short-term memory can maintain about seven chunks of unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds  -Short-term memory is working memory -Baddeley's model of working memory consists of four components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the episodic buffer -Some theorists view short-term memory as a tiny, constantly changing portion of LTM in a state of heightened activation
   • Long-Term Memory
     • -Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information indefinitely  -Flashbulb memories and Penfield's ESB research suggest that LTM storage may be permanent, but the data are not convincing -Memories can be organized in a variety of ways
     • Organization of LTM
       • Conceptual Hierarchies
         • -A conceptual hierarchy is a multi-level classification system based on common properties among items 
       • Schemas
         • -A schema is an organized cluster of information about an object or event
       • Semantic Networks
         • -A semantic consists of concepts joined by pathways linking related concepts 
       • Connectionist Networks
         • -PDP models assume that memories consist of patterns of activation in connectionist networks that resemble neural networks

3. Retrieval

   • -Recall is often guided by partial information, as demonstrated by the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon -Reinstating the context of an event can often enhance retrieval efforts -Memories are sketchy reconstructions of the past that may be distorted  -The misinformation effect occurs when recall of an event is changed by misleading postevent information -Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce inaccuracies into memory  -A source-monitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is attributed to another source -Reality monitoring involves deciding whether memories are based on one's perceptions of actual events or one's thoughts and imaginations  -Destination memory involves recalling to whom one has told what

4. Forgetting

   • Measuring Forgetting
     • -People view forgetting as a deficiency but it can be adaptive in that it can make it easier to remember important information -Ebbinghaus's work suggested that most forgetting occurs very rapidly, but subsequent research indicated that his forgetting curve was exceptionally steep -Retention can be assessed with a recall measure, a recognition measure, or a relearning measure
   • The Repressed Memories Controversy
     • -Recent years have seen a surge of reports of recovered memories of previously forgotten sexual abuse in childhood -While many clinicians accept these recovered memories, arguing that it is common for people to bury traumatic memories in their unconscious, many researchers point to the results of research suggesting it is easy to create inaccurate memories
   • Why We Forget
     • -A great deal of forgetting, including pseudoforgetting, is due to ineffective encoding -Decay theory proposes that memory traces fade with time, but decay does not appear to be a factor in long-term memory -Interference theory asserts that people forget information because of competition from other material, which has proven easy to demonstrate  -Forgetting is often due to retrieval failure, which may include repression
   • Types of Memory Failure
     • -Daniel Schacter summarized memory failure in his seven sins of memory: transience absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence 

5. Physiology of Memory

   • Anatomy of Memory
     • -Retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia. Anterograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia  -Studies of amnesia, such as the case of H.M., suggest that the hippocampal region and adjacent areas are critical for long-term memory -Theorists believe that the medical temporal lobe memory system plays a key role in the consolidation of long-term memories, which are then stored in widely distributed areas of the cortex
   • Neiral Circuitry of Memory
     • -Some theorists argue that memories may correspond to alterations in neurotransmitter activity at specific synapses  -Some theorists believe that memories may correspond to localized neural pathways in the brain -These pathways may depend on increases in neural excitability at specific synapses, which is called long-term potentiation 

6. Proposed Memory Systems

   • Observed Memory Phenomenon
     • Explicit Memory
       • -Explicit memory involves intentional recollection of previous experiences  -Explicit memory is conscious, accessed directly, and best assessed with recall or recognition measures of retention
     • Implicit Memory
       • -Implicit memory is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering  -Implicit memory is unconscious, accessed indirectly, and best assessed with relearning measures of retention
   • Underlying Memory Systems
     • Nondeclarative Memory
       • -The nondeclarative memory system handles recall of actions, and operations, such as riding a bike or typing
     • Declarative Memory
       • -The declarative memory system handles recall of factual information, such as names, dates, events, and ideas
       • Semantic Versus Episodic Memory
         • -The semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not temporally dated -The episodic memory system handles temporally dated recollections of personal experiences 
       • Prospective Versus Retrospective Memory
         • -Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future  -Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information

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