Learning Chapter. 6

Learning Chapter. 6

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Defined as: a type of learning in which stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
     • Resulting in Phobias: Irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
       • Explained by prepardness - involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others.
     • A Trial in classical conditioning consists of an presentation of a stimulus of pair of stimuli
     • Think "Associations"
   • Ivan Pavlov (1900) Pavlovian Conditioning
     • He showed how stimuli in the external world controlled our actions and behaviour
       • Experimented using dogs and their saliva reaction when meat was present
       • Demonstrated that learned associations were formed by events in an organism's environment.
     • Evaluative conditioning - acquisition of likes/dislikes & preferences through classical conditioning
       • Ex. Selling of a product through use of appealing means of media
   • Vocabulary
     • UCS - unconditioned stimuli - stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
     • UCR - unconditioned response - an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
     • CS - conditioned stimulus - a perviously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
     • CR - conditioned response - learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of pervious conditioning
   • Influence on the body's immune system
     • Conditioning procedures can lead to immunosuppression - a decrease in the production of antibodies.
     • Immune resistance, drug tolerance and allergic reactions also have potential to be effected
       • Drug Addictions
         • Exposure to drug-related cues may trigger compensatory CRs that increase drug cravings
         • As compensatory CRs strengthen, they neutralize the drug's pleasurable effects. Thus, producing a decline in the user's response to the drug itself.
   • Basic Processes
     • 1. Acquisition - the initial stage of learning something
       • Depends on 'stimulus contiguity'. They must occur together in time & space.
     • 2. Extinction - gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
       • Caused when the conditioned stimulus is alone, without the unconditioned stimulus.
     • 3. Spontaneous Recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
       • Suggests that extinction suppresses rather than erasing the learned association.
   • Stimulus Control
     • Stimulus Generalization
       • Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus.
         • Ex. Little Albert and the fear of white rats (conducted by behaviourist John Watson)
         • Law: The more similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the generalization
     • Stimulus Discrimination
       • Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
         • Law: The less similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the likelihood (and ease) of discrimination
         • Ex. Your dog responds differently to your car then the appearance of someone else's

2. Operant Conditioning

   • Defined as: a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
     • Also named 'Instrumental learning'
     • Think "Consequential"
   • B.F Skinner - organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favourable consequences
     • Reinforcement - occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
       • Positive
         • When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
         • Reward
       • Negative
         • When a response is strengthened because it's followed by the removal if an unpleasant stimulus
         • Relief
         • Ex. Rush home in winter to get out of the cold
         • Key role in 'escape' and 'avoidance learning'
           • Escape Learning - an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
             • Leads to
               • Avoidance Learning - an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
       • Primary Reinforcers - events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
         • Ex. Food, Water, Warmth, Sex
       • Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcers - events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
         • Ex. Money, good grades, attention
       • A Schedule of Reinforcement - determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
         • Continuous Reinforcement - occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced
         • Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement - occurs when a designated response is reinforces only some of the time
           • The response is more resistant to extinction opposed to continuous reinforcement
           • Ex. A child's occasional temper tantrum
         • Ratio Schedules
           • Fixed Ratio (FR) - the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
           • Variable Ratio (VR) - the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non reinforced responses
         • Interval Schedules
           • Fixed Interval (FI) - the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
           • Variable Interval (VI) - the reinforcer is given of the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed
       • Defined by terms of consequence
         • Punishment - when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
           • Strengthening of Response? Negative Reinforcement
           • Weakening of Response? Punishment
           • Not always effected and may cause may side effects
     • Use of the 'Skinner Box' - small enclosure where animals can make specific responses that is recorded while the consequences of the response is systematically controlled
       • The experimenter controls the reinforcement contingencies (when the positive consequences occur)
   • Basic Processes
     • Acquisition & Shaping - consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approx. of a desired response
       • Ex. Housetraining a puppy or training zoo animals
     • Resistance to Extinction - occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
       • Ex. A Casino still banks on it's Gamblers even if their experiencing a losing streak
   • Stimulus Control
     • Stimulus Generalization
       • Responding increases the presence of new stimulus that resembles discriminative stimulus
     • Stimulus Discrimination
       • Responding does not increase in the lack of presence of new stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus
       • Discriminative stimuli - cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequence of a response
         • Ex. Birds hunt for worms after it rains

3. Observable Learning

   • Defined as: An organisms response that has been influenced by the observation of others called 'models'
   • Albert Bandura (1977,1986) "Social Learning Theory"
     • Basic Processes
       • Attention
         • To learn through observation, you must pay attention to another person's behaviour and its consequences
       • Retention
         • You must store in your memory a mental representation of what you have witnessed for years at a time
       • Reproduction
         • Enacting a modelled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behaviour
       • Motivation
         • Unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless you are motivated to do so
       • Crucial for effective Modelling
         • Modelling - The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour
           • Promotes both Negative and Positive effects
           • Ex. Celebrity lead is a huge role
         • Bobo doll experiment to study observable learning and aggression
     • Said to be the bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories
     • Acquisition vs. Performance
   • Effects on the Brain
     • Mirror Neurons - activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey/person perform the same action
       • Ex. Smilling in response to a compliment

4. What is Learning? Any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience.

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