THE LEARNING OF A SECOND LANGUAGE

THE LEARNING OF A SECOND LANGUAGE

1. Several variables

   • OUTCOME
     • Proficiency: listening speaking reading writing Errors Interlanguage Affective reactions
       • TEACHING
         • Teacher Materials Syllabus Methodology Resources
       • LEARNER
         • Age Intelligence Aptitude Attittude Personality: self-steem extroversión anxiety risk-taking Cognitive-style: dependent-independent oral/ visual reflexive/impulsive
       • CONTEXT
         • SL/FL Opportunities for language use Social environment

2. INDIVIDUAL LEARNING FACTORS

   • Affective
     • Personality, attitudes, motivation, anxiety.
   • Congnitive:
     • Aptitude, learning or congnitive style, intelligence, learning strategies.

3. INPUT AND INTERACTION

   • INPUT
     • Input can be defined as the language information or data the learner is exposed to and has access to. Ellis (1985: 127) describes it as “the language that is addressed to the L2 learner learner either by a native speaker or by another L2 learner “.
       • THEORIES
         • Behaviourism
           • The second language was then learned automatically by forming a series of habits. Chomsky, however, questioned this theory and claimed that, on many occasions, there was no match between the kind of language to be observed in input and the actual language the learners produced
         • Nativists
           • Emphasize those factors internal to the learner.
         • Interactionist
           • Treats the acquisition of language as the result of the interaction between the learner ́s mental process and the linguistic environment. It tries to put the two previous models together.
             • Interaction
               • Consists of the discourse jointly constructed by the learner and the interlocutor; input may then be the result of the interaction.
                 • TALKS
                   • FOREIGNER
                     • This usually involves a number of formal and interactional adjustments in native speaker speech. Foreigner talk occurs because of the need to negotiate meaning and to simplify language.
                   • TEACHER
                     • Studies on teacher talk reveal similar features to those found for foreigner talk, although ungrammatical modifications may be less common.

4. Optimal learning environment

   • High quantity of input directed to the learner;
   • Learner perceives need to communicate in the L2;
   • Control over topic choice
   • Adherence to the “here-and-now” principle, at least initially
   • The learner needs the opportunity to listen to and to produce language used for different language functions;
   • Exposure to a high amount of directives (commands, orders)
   • Exposure to a high quantity of “extending utterances” (e.g. requests for clarification and confirmation, paraphrases and expansions)
   • Opportunities for uninhibited “practice” (which may provide opportunities to experiment using “new” forms).

5. THE ROLE OF FORMAL INSTRUCTION IN THE LEARNING OF A SECOND LANGUAGE

   • The non-interface position
     • It is associated with Krashen (1982). He distinguished between “acquired” and “ learned” knowledge and argued that they were independent. According to this, formal instruction failed to influence the natural route of SLA, as this was said to be a reflection of acquisition.
     • The interface position
       • It was maintained among others by Stevick (1980) and Sharwood Smith (1981) defended the notion that “learned” or explicit knowledge could turn into “acquired” or implicit knowledge if there was enough practice.
       • The variability position
         • Tarone (1983); and Bialystok (1982) saw acquisition and language use as closely related. Thus, different types of knowledge arose from and are required for the performance of different language tasks.