Learning

Learning

1. Operant

   • Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
   • Acquistion in operant conditioning refers to the inital stage of learning some new pattern of responding
   • Extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer
   • Shaping is necessary when an organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response.
   • Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
   • Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. Opponents of corporal punishment argue that it produces many unintended and undesirable side effects.

2. Classical

   • How classical conditioning shapes phobias: Suffering from phobias suggest that many irrational fears can be traces back to experiences that involve classical conditioning
   • How classical conditioning shapes attitude: A neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimuli that trigger positive reasction so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits similar positive reactions . Some studies suggeset that attitudes can be shaped through evaluative conditioning
   • How classical conditioning shapes physiological processes: The critical importance pf the immune response becomes evident when the immune system is disabled. Immune resistance is only one example of the subtle psysiological processes that can be influenced bt classical conditioning.
   • Classical conditioning in drug tolerance, it involves a gradual decline in responsiveness to a drug with repeated use, so that larger and larger doses are required to attain the users customary effect.
   • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
   • Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning something
   • Spontaneous recovery us the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
   • Learning is any relatively durable change in behaviour knowledge that is due to experience.
   • Conditioning involves learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment. superstitions have been the subject of scientific learning research and are an example of what psychologists are referring to when they use the term learning,
   • Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning, by his work. His work showed how stimuli in the external world controlled our actions and behaviour. He de-emphasized the mind and mentalistic accounts of behaviour, and showed how learning was under the influence of experience and that associations could be built up in consciousness. His subjects were dogs. He was studying the role of salvia in the digestive processes of dogs when he stumbled onto what he called "psychic reflexes"
   • Stimulus Discrimination: responding differently to a new stimulus .
   • Stimulus generalization: Responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS. Things that look, sound, or feel similar often share significant properties.

3. Cognitive and Evolutionary Perspectives

   • Mirror neuros are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action.
   • REsearches found that some of the same neurons also became activated when the animals observed one of the experimenters performing similar actions, at one point when the monkeys themselves were not engages in the action.
   • According to Tolman, learning is a very general process because the biological bases of learning and the basic problems confronted by various organisms are much the same across species

4. Observational

   • Tolmans Research: His ideas were ahead of his time. Tolmans ideas prevailed, s models of conditioning were eventually forced to incorporate cognitve factors.
   • Observational Learning: occurs when an organism;s responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models.
   • Bandura conducted a classical experiments on aggression often reddered to s the "Bobo doll" experiments. Bandura showed that children would imitate aggressive behaviour directed toward a bobo doll. He suggested a connection between children watching violence on television and their own aggressivness.

5. Learning is any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience.

6. Trial-A presentation of a stimulus or a pair of stimuli.

7. Evaluative conditioning: refers to changes n the liking of a stimulus that results from pairing the stimulus with other positive or negative or negative stimuli

8. Unconditioned stimulus- a stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training. Example: Food.

9. Unconditioned response: The observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of US. Example: Salvation.

10. Conditioned stimulus: Neutral stimulus that is paired with the US during classical conditioning. E.g. Bell.

11. Conditioning and Physiological Responses: Ader and Cohen showed that classical conditioning can lead to immunosupperssion- a decrease in the production of antibodies.

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