Learning

Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Its a type of learning in which a stimulus aquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
   • Pavlov's demonstration
     • .Classical conditioning was originally described by Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a tone.
   • Terminilogy and procedures
     • UCS- stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. UCR - unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. CS - previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response. CR - learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
   • Classical conditioning in everyday life
     • Classically conditioned responses are said to be elicited. Many kinds of everyday responses are regulated through classical conditioning, including phobias, mild fears, and pleasant emotional responses. Even subtle physiological responses such as immune system functioning respond to classical conditioning.
     • Evaluative conditioning of attitudes
       • It refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.
   • Basic processes
     • Stimulus contiguity plays a key role in the acquisition of new conditioned responses. A conditioned response may be weakened and extinguished entirely when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. In some cases, spontaneous recovery occurs, and an extinguished response reappears after a period of nonexposure to the CS.
     • Acquisition
       • It refers to the initial stage of learning something.
     • Extinction
       • It is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.
     • Spontaneous recovery
       • It is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. Renewal effect -  response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.
   • Stimulus generalization
     • Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are similar to the original CS.
     • Stimulus discrimination
       • It occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
     • Higher-order conditioning
       • Conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
   • Cognition
     • When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if it appears that the response caused the outcome.
   • Evolutionary and biological effects
     • Sauce Bearnaise syndrome
       • Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired even when there is a lengthy delay between the CS and UCS. Seligman's concept of preparedness may explain why certain phobias are far more common than others.
     • Preparedness and phobias
       • Preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others.

2. Operant Conditioning

   • It is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
   • Thorndike'a law of effect
     • If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
   • Skinner's demonstration
     • Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
   • Terminology and procedures
     • The key dependent variable in operant conditioning is the rate of response over time, which is tracked by a device called a cumulative recorder. When responding over time is shown graphically, steep slopes indicate rapid responding.
   • Basic processes
     • Acquisition and shaping
       • Shaping consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. It is the key to training animals to perform impressive tricks.
     • Extinction
       • Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of reinforcer has been terminated. Extinction occurs when reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines.
     • Generalization and discrimination
       • Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
   • Reinforcement and superstitious behavior
     • The central process in reinforcement is the strengthening of a response. Primary reinforcers are unlearned; they are closely tied to the satisfaction of physiological needs. In contrast, secondary reinforcers acquire their reinforcing quality through conditioning.
   • Schedules of reinforcement
     • Schedules of reinforcement influence patterns of operant responding. Continuous reinforcement occurs when every disignated response is reinforced. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement include fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules. Fixed-ratio - reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses. Variable-ratio - reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. Fixed-interval - reinforcer is given to the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. Variable-interval - reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. Intermittent schedules produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous schedules. Ratio schedules tend to yield higher rates of response than interval schedules. Shorter intervals and higher ratios are associated with faster responding.
   • Positive reinforcement vs. negative reinforcement
     • Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by presentation of a rewarding stimulus. Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. It regulates escape and avoidance learning. Escape learning - organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation. Avoidance learning - organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.
   • Punishment
     • It occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. It involves unfavourable consequences that lead to a decline in responsive strength. Positive punishment involves the application of aversie consequences and negative punishment involves the removal of a reward.
     • Side effects
       • Problems include emotional side effects and increased aggressive behavior. To be effective, punishment of children should be swift, consistent, explained, nonphysical and just severe enough to have an impact.
   • Latent learning and cognitive maps
     • Latent learning  - learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.
   • Evolutionary and biological effects
     • Instictive drift occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes.

3. Observational Learning

   • Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
   • Basic processes
     • -Attention - you must pay attention to another person's behavior and its consequences -Retention - you many not have ocasion to use an observed responce for weeks, month or even years. you must store inyour memory a mental representation of what you have witnessed -Reproduction - enacting a modelled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior. -Motivation  - you are unlikely to reproduced an observed response unless you are motivated to do so.  Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you.
   • Observational leaning and the brain
     • According to Bandura, reinforcement influences which of several already acquired responces one will perform more than it influences the aquisition of new responces. Mirror neurons - neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action.
   • Media violence controversy
     • Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media on behavior. The principles of observational learning have also been used to explain why physical punishment increase aggressive behavior.

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