LEARNING

LEARNING

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

   • Terminology and procedures
     • *Responses controlled through classical conditioning are said to be elicited *Classical conditioning begins with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits and unconditional response (UCR) *Then a neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS until it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR)
   • Palov's Demonstration
     • *Classical conditioning was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, he conditioned dogs to salivate when a tone was presented 
     • http://www.myhandfamily.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Stivers-2-10-03-Pavlovs-dogs.gif
   • In Everyday Life
     • *Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response originally evoked by another stimulus *Classical conditioning mainly regulates involuntary, reflexive responses  *Examples include emotional responses (such as fears) and physiological responses (such as immunosuppression)  
   • Basic Process
     • -Acquisition occurs when a CS and UCS are paired, gradually resulting in a CR -Acquisition depends on stimulus contiguity, which is a temporal association between events -Extinction occurs when a CS is repeatedly presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR -Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS
   • Generalization
     • -Generalization occurs when a CR is elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS -Discrimination occurs when a CR is not elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS -Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS 

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING

   • Basic Process
     • -Acquisition occurs when a response gradually increases due to contingent reinforcement  -Acquisition may involve shaping--the reinforcement of closer and closer approximation of the desired response  -Extinction occurs when responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated  -Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after after reinforcement for it has been terminated -Generalization occurs when responding increases in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus  -Discrimination occurs when responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus -Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing, whereas secondary reinforcers develop through learning
   • Terminology and procedures
     •    -Response controlled through operant conditioning are said to be emitted  -Demonstrations of operant conditioning typically occur in a Skinner box where an animal's reinforcement is controlled -The key dependant variable is the animal's responsive rate as monitored by a cumulative recorder, with results portrayed in graphs (steeper slopes are indicative of faster responding)    
   • Skinners Demonstraition
     •    -Operant conditioning was pioneered by B.F. Skinner, who showed that rats and pigeons tend to repeat responses that are followed by favourable outcomes   -Operant conditioning mainly regulates voluntary, spontaneous responses, such as studying, going to work, telling jokes and asking someone out   
   • Thorndike’s Law of effect
     •    -Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences    -E.L Thorndike's work on instrumental learning and the law of effect provided the foundation for the study of operant conditioning   
   • Reinforcements and Superstition
     •    -Reinforcement is most effective when it is immediate; delayed reinforcement undermines response acquisition -continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced  -intermittent reinforcement occurs when a response is reinforced only some of the time     
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     •    -Reinforcement is most effective when it is immediate; delayed reinforcement undermines response acquisition -continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of  designated response is reinforced  -intermittent reinforcement occurs when a response is reinforced only some of the time  
   • Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
     •    -positive reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus    -negative reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus  -negative reinforcement plays a key role in escape learning and avoidance learning  
     • http://cola.calpoly.edu/~cslem/Wizdemo/6-files/6-19PosNeg.JPEG
   • Punishment
     •    -punishment occurs when  an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response  -punishment may result in the side effects such as negative emotional  responses and increased aggressive behaviour -when used for disciplinary reasons, punishments should be  applied swiftly, just severe enough to be effective, explained and not physical   

3. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

   • Basic Process
     • Attention: paying attention to anothers behaviour and consequences as a way of learning Retention: you may not use it immediatly but you store it in your memory for use when needed Reproduction: Acting out what you have learnt from watching others Motivation: you'll only do it if you think it will pay off for you in the long run 
   • Obervational Learning and Media Violence
     •    -Observational learning  occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, called models -Observational learning was pioneered by Albert Bandura, who  showed that conditioning does not have to to be a product of direct exposure -Both classical and operant conditioning can take place through  observational learning -Observational learning depends on the processes of  attention, retention, reproduction and motivation -Bandura distinguishes between the acquisition of a learned  response and the performance of that response, with the latter depending on reinforcement -Observational learning can explain why physical punishment  tends to increase aggression in children even when it is intended to do the opposite, and why exposure to media violence correlates with increased  aggression and desensitization to the effects of violence -Recent research suggests that a specific type of neuron,  "mirror neurons" may partially account for some observational  learning effects   
   • https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/37/d5/97/37d597909f1455fa9acfd26de8fb08ec.jpg

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