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- 1Monthy Python's Flying Circus (1969-74)British comedy TV-show
Blend of surrealism / absurdity / satire
"Always look on the bright side of life" - 2Structuralism (Text- /Code- oriented)=code, structure,symbol,design,convention -> seeks Parallels, Balances,Symmetry
Effect: Show textual unity and coherence
Not: content,moral significance,interpretation - 3Post-Structuralism (Text- / Code- oriented)-> seeks Contradictions,Shifts/Breaks in Tone/Viewpoint/Attitude/Time/ ..., Linguistic quirks
Effect: Show textual disunity - 4New Historicism vs 'Old' Historicism (1)discourse = the whole mental set and ideology which encloses the thinking of all members of society, not singular or monolithic
Parallel reading of literary and historical texts = co-text (looking at the particular moment in time the piece was written in)
Looking at form -> tells sth. about historical context
Franco Moretii: literary studies = "reverse engineering" - 5Definition New and Old Historicism (2)Old historicism follows a hierarchical approach by creating a historical framework and placing the literary text within it, New Historicism, upholding that there is nothing outside the text, or that everything is available to us in “textual” form, breaks such hierarchies and looks at history as represented and recorded in literary texts. In short, while Old Historicism is concerned with the “world” of the past, New Historicism deals with the “word” of the past.
- 6Cultural MaterialismDescribes a theoretical blending of leftist culturalism and Marxist analysis. Cultural materialists deal with specific historical documents and attempt to analyze and recreate the zeitgeist of a particular moment in history.
literary texts = resolutions to problems / answers to questions that have disappeared (both New H. and Cult. Materialism) - 7Postcolonial CriticismEdward Said (1993): coined following terms
1. Ovelapping Territories
2. Intertwined Histories
3. "Contrapuntal reading" -> When reading a work from the historic point of view that is narrated, one should try to read it from the point of view that is not narrated (i.e. British colonial text -> contrapuntal reading -> read it from the perspective of the unheard colonised people) - 8Methodology of Postcolonial Criticismaim = theory-baed analysis and interpretation
self-relexive thinking
knowledge and skills to appreciate the aesthetic dimension
Study Questions:
1. What are the thems of the text?
2. How is the text constructed?
3. Why does the text use these particular meants? - 9Methodology1. literary text: Beowulf
2. terminology of literary analysis: genre= Old English epic poem
3. literary theory = New Historicism, Structuralism, Gender Studies - 10ReferencesKindlers Literatur Lexikon
The British Library
The Guardian - 11PrehistoryNo written documents, but complex history and culture
three-age system:
1. Stone Age
2. Bronze Age
3.Iron Age - 12StonehengeFrom the "New Stone Age" (ca.4000bc)
located in Sailisbury Plain
possible purposes: worship, astronomical observatory, burial site
Several phases of construction, probably completed around 1500BC - 13Bronze Age (ca. 2000BC)continuity: usage and expansion of great monuments
change: growing exchange of raw materials along the Atlantic seaboard -> production of bronze (90%copper, 10%tin)
second half: intensification of agricultural control
reuslt: population growth - 14Iron Age (ca.600BC)Celts:
-diverse group of people with related languages
-common way of lige, no national unity
-hierarchical social structure
-expansion and migration -> adaptation and appropriation of Celtic language in the British Isles - 15What did the Romans bring to Britain? (1)1.Sanitation
2.Medicine
3.Education
4.Wine
5.Public order
6.Irrigation
7.Roads
8.Fresh water system
9.Public health - 16The Romans in Britain (2)AD 43: conquest of Britain's south-east under Claudius
impact on British Isles: prehistory -> history
(because Romans were the first that produced written sources / they record history)
early 4th c. : increased attacks by Pictish and Saxon-> withdrawal of the Romans - 17Roman Rule (3)Indirect Rule:
Relying on self-financing and self-administering of local elites (client-kingdoms)
(-Coloniae: Roman cities of highest rank, Roman citizens
-municipia: lower rank, Roman and other citizens
-civitates: districts based on pre-Roman tribal properties)
later on: collaboration and resistance, maladministration, fragmentation
ex: Hadrian's Wall (pict. in the slides) - 18The Romans in Britain (4) -> importanteconomy:
-construction of roads and towns
-improvement of transport and trade
-boost to production due to well-funded army
society:
-expansion of trade, use of coinage
-shifting alliences of tribes among themselves and with the Romans
-combination of smaller tribal units into bigger ones -> 'early states'
(The start of cenralisation happening so early on the British Isles is one of the factors that led to the British Empire in the early 20th c.)
culture:
-language
-religion
-physical environment and interior decoration
-way of life - 19Echoes of Roman Rule in Britain Bernardine Evaristo (*1959)The Emperor's Babe (2001)
Blonde Roots (2009) (about slavery) - 20Decisive Processes (410-1154)1. Two major waves of immigration
-4th to th4 c. Angles, Jutes, Saxons (from Northern Ger., Juteland, Denmark)
-8th to 10th c.: Scandinavians (Vikings)
-reassertion of older political pattern: petty kingdoms -> sustained by tribute and booty -> continuous struggle for power
-ca. 500: British victory at Mount Badon - 21King Arthur (likely to be a tail rather than an actual person)2 different legends:
1.Great British-Romano soldier who successfully fought the advancing Anglo-Saxons
2.Ideal king of chivalry and courtly romance
immortalised in: Thomas Malory's "Morte Darthur" (1485) - 22Angles, Saxons, Jutes (1)results of Anglo-Saxon settlement: 3 cultural zones
1. English-speaking Anglos-saxon east
2. Celtic North and West
3. Ireland and small parts in west Britain
Contrast to continent:
Development of vernaculars (non-standard speech forms)
No contact between Germanic and Celtic people - 23Angles, Saxons, Jutes (2)Create written history:
1. St Glidas (493-570), De Excidio Britanniae
2. St Bede (672-735), Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum(-> Ecclestiastical History of the English people) -> "Father of English History" + creation of spiritual English identity
3.Anglo Saxon Chronicle
-Alfred the Great, King of Wessex + multiple translations form Old English
-function: to eventually claim legitamacy for one English Kingdom - 24Kingship7th c.: Heptarchy (Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Northumbria, East Anglia, Mercia)
9th c.: three kingdoms (Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria)
(-> centralisation over hundreds of years)
Idea of one single kingdom to become 'Bretwalda' (overlord of Britannia)
-envisaged by Alfred, King of Wessex (871-899)
-realised by great-grandson Edgar (959-975)
-Single kingdom of the Scots
-Ireland and Wales still multiple kingdoms - 25The Scandinavians8th c.: second wave of migrants -> Norwegians and Danes
865: start of widespread raids
878: invasion of East Anglia stopped by Alfred who ruled the only remaining Anglo-Saxon kingdom
1016: Cnut (House of Denmark) becomes King of England
1042: Edward the Confessor (House of Wessex) replaces Cnut
-> gradual re-establishment of power due to Scandinavians' destruction of all other kingdoms - 26The Normans1066: Norman Conquest led by William the Conqueror -> the last extensive invasion of the British Isles!
1086: Domesday Book
-> collection of data concerning the distribution of land and property throughout England
->tremendous changes to the upper strata of society due to the Norman Conquest
->4000thegns (Anglo-Saxon landowners) dispossessed and replaced by 200 Norman barons ->"Elitenaustausch" - 27Norman Conquest (Important for exam to know the changes it brought)changes:
->New Royal Family
->New Ruling Class
consequences:
social: greater emphasis on the obligations the English subjects have to the Norman lords-> tightened social hierarchy
political: centralisation increased
international: shift away from relations with Scandinavia towards Continental affairs
cultural: Anglo-Saxon replaced by Norman French as the language of the ruling class - 28Social structure -> Feudal System (pic. p. 40) + Feudalism (expl. p. 40).
- 29Session 2Middle Ages: Old And Middle English Literatures
- 30Beowulf (1)->Longest and most famous old english epic
->Written in 10th c. in West Saxon dialect, but composed in 8th c. Mercia, North Humbria
-> set in southern Scandinavia 5th and 6th c.
->Hero Beowulf (pun 'Bee Wolf' meaning bear) has no proven historical record
->Deeply masculinist and militaristic, celebration of a military ethnic in which women play almost no part
->deatils of weapons, ships, armour, etc. correspondent to 7th c. Scandinavia and famous "Suton Hoo"-Treasure (in the British Library) - 31Aside: Christianity->Gradual introduction of Christianity: Celtic Church sind 4th c. - in 6th c. missionaries from Scotland send into North of England
-> St Augustine's mission from Rome 597
-> Synod of Whitby 664 resolved differences between the churches in favour of Rome
->10th c. Anglo-Saxon church stabilises after Danish invasion
->12th and 13th c.: conflict between church and king - 32Beowulf (2)What is it about?
->his rise as a hero and his death
->Hrothgar the current Danish king -> his hall gets terrorised by a monster named Grendel which kills multiple men every night
->Young warrior Beowulf, from the neigbhouring Geats, wounds Grendel -> Grendels mother wants revenge -> He kills both of them in their underwater cave -> is rewarded and tells his tale
->king gives Beowulf land which he rules for 50 years -> Dragon gets awoken and attacks Beowulfs land and people. He together with this friend Wiglaf kill the dragon, but Beowulf is fatally wounded -> Wiglaf rescues the dragon's treasure before Beowulf's death
-> description of Beowulf's funeral and a prophecy of disaster for the Geats - 33Aside: Seamus Heaney (1939-2013)Irish poet, playwright, translater and lecturer
1995: Nobel Prize in Literature
1999: prize-winning translation of Beowulf - 34Beowulf (3)Methodology:
literary text: Beowulf
terminology: genre: Old english epic poem
literary theory: New Hist., Gender Studies, Structuralism, Stylistics
-> interlace structures: prolepses and flashbacks, parallels and contrasts, repetitions, digressions
->dominant trope of OE: variation (->therefore, parallels, synonyms, metaphors, litotes) -> saying the same in different ways
->kennings: poetic description of everyday things to fulfill the alliterative requirements of the metre - 35Beowulf (4)Why is Beowulf constructed in this way?
function: oral performance to pass on the fame of the king, create a sense of community and a collective identity
audience at early feudal court knew the subject mat
mood: serious, solemn, melancholy - 36Beowulf (5)Why is Beowulf constructed this way?
->Grendel and Grendel's mother = symbols of threat against mankind
->contrast: Forces of destruction vs. Beowulf and the hall
->dragon kills hero = parallel to the kings that died before
-> Beowulf = allegory on decline of heroic society - 37Political Developments (1154-1485)-> Norman Conquest: 1066
-replacement of Anglo-Saxon aristocracy by Norman Elite
-Primogeniture
-closer political and cultural ties to Europe / Continent
->creation of powerful monarchy by the Angevin / Plantagenet royal dynasty (1154-1399) exercising its hegemony within the British Isles
->Plantagenet kings = dukes of Normandy / counts of Anjou, vessel of the king of France -> attempts at uniting the crowns (never worked)
-> war financing -> taxation-> early forms of representational government - 38Aside: Primogeniture (goes into exam)inheritance system: eldest son inherits property and title (abolished England 1926, Scotland 1964)
entail = limit of inheritance over a number of generations -> ownership remains within the family
-> Results: 17 and 18th c.
1. Accumulation of large estates
2. restriction of small proprietorships
3. English nobility = small group unlike the Continent
4. younger sons of aristocracy and gentry -> forced to learn profession = link between gentry and middle classes - 39Henry II (r. 1154-89)King of England, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, Duke of Aquitaine
->consolidation after two decades of civil war
-re-establishment of stable government
-reformation of both civil and criminal law
->capable rule yet there was no institutional unity
(-> ambitious sons -> attempted rebellion 1137)
->great conflict between the church, i.e. Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterburry - 40Magna Carta (1215) (exam)John (Softword or Lackland)(1199-1216)
->collapse of Avengin empire-> acceptance of Magna Carta
->Document of feudal conflicts between the King and the Barons -> Milestone in British constitutional history
->1st version: redefinition of feudal practices, restraint on royal power
-> 1st document that shows importance of Barons and the power they had - 41Magna Carta (2) Clauses1. No freeman could be (...) destroyed, save by the lawful judgement of his equals and by the law of the land
2. The Church of England has her rights and liberties inviolable
3. The power of the sheriffs restricted
4.The liberties of boroughs were confirmed - 42Aside: Sources of British Law1. Statute Law (made by monarch, then parliament): Magna Carta (1215), Bill of Rights (1689), Reform Act (1832), European Community Act (1972)
2. European Union Law
3. Common Law: Case Law or judge-made law based on precedents (important to know) - 43Political Struggles (1272-1485)Edward I(r.1272-1307)
-> introduction of statute law
->1295: 'Model Parliament' -> 1st ever parliament (important to know) - 44Parliamentlack of money = driving force in Parliament's evolution
Early Middle Ages: Monarchs agreed to live of their own lands
High/Middle Ages: permanent warfare -> ever-increasing taxation
14th c.: separation into two houses
1.House of Lords: lay lords, greater clergy
2.House of commons: knights, burgesses
1363: Parliament summoned in English for the 1st time
Tudors: increasing power -> Glorious Revolution: zenith - 45The Hundred Years War (1328-1453)1328: Death of Charles IV of France
1340 Dynastic War: Edward III adopts title of King of France -> victories in Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356) due to skilled archers, infrantry and tactical skill
Treaty of Bretigny: Edward agrees to lucrative territorial settlement
1415: English successes at the victory of Agincourt
yet: Growing alienation between Britain and France - 46Society and Culture (1154-1485)The Black Death (ca. 1348-75)
bubonic plague-> decisive transformation of society in the british isles
-> Population decrease by 33%-50%!
-> Decreasing demand for food
-decline in trade and industry
-reorientation in agriculture
-> acute labour shortage->rise in wages
->Peasant Revolt (1381): peasants and wage labourers: Leaders were John Ball, Wat Tyler (led march to London)
->imbalance of ecenomic relations between employer and employee -> End of serfdom
->Erosion of the Freudal System
Personal loyalty (Lords to king) -> loyalty to country and its monarch
Personal loyalty (serfs to lords) -> contracts, taxes
-> Growing complexities of government and administration -> foundation of educational institutions
Education
-> church in control of all worldly education
->11th c.: emergence of 'advanced' or 'grammar' schools
-7 liberal arts: trivium (grammar, rhethoric, dialectic) quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music)
-preperation for higher education
ex. Winchester College(1382), Eton College (1440)
-> Universities: Oxford (1185), Cambridge (1209), St Andrews (1410), - 47Languages since 1066 (1)6 languages:
1.Latin: Language of highest cultural authority -> used by church and academic scholars
2.Anglo-Norman French: language of the royal court and the elite
3.Gaelic / Welsh / Cornish: everyday use, folk lore, poetry and songs
4. Englsih: language of an opressed people, survived in many variants as language of the lower class and re-emerged in 13 th c. - 48Languages since 1066 (2)-> 2 sovereign kingdoms
1. Scots English: spoken in Lowland Scotland
2.The English of England: based on the London dialect
-> Expansion of English -> ever-growing reading community
->1476: William Baxton: printing press
->gradual erosion of the clergy's monopoly of reading and writing texts - 49Language ChangeOld English -> Middle English
Old English: Celtic, Danish, Norman influences
Middle English: Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French - 50Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400)Son of wine merchant trading with Europe
Fought and was captured in 100 years war
Spoke French
Diplomatic missions
Went to italy, perhaps met important writers Petrarch and Bocaccio, but certainly bought copies of their and Dante's books - 51Geoffrey Chaucer's Middle English "Canterbury Tales" (1386-1400)-> 24 tales in several manuscripts
->printed in1478
->told by a group of pilgrims on their way to London / Canterbury to the shrine of Thomas Becket who never make it there = stresses both the worldly existence of the pilgrims and the secularity of the text as a whole - 52Canterbury Tales - Methodologyliterary text: G. Chaucer: Canterbury Tales
terminology of literary analysis: genre: narrative poem with several sub-genres
literary theory:
New Historicism, Gender Studies, Reader Response - 53What are the Canterbury Tales about?-> social change in early bourgeois society
-> conflicts in politics and religion, social aspriation
-> economic practices: materialism, profit
-> gender relations: women: freedom vs. submission - 54How are the Canterbury Tales told?-> Structure: frame narrative
-> characters: males and females from all social ranks (except the highest), narrate their lives in detail, interact
-> their individual styles: vivid, down to earth, witty
-> the general prologue introduces the following characters:
Cloth-maker business woman from Bath (on the search for her sixth husband), knight, yeoman, nun, monk, begger, merchant, Oxford scholar, ... - 55How are the Canterbury Tales told?-generic variety: poerty and prose (categories)
1. the courtly romance
2. the 'fabliau' (crude funny story about sex)
3. animale fable
4 ...
->metric variety - 56Why are the Canterbury Tales told that way?Function of character construction:
-> variety of characters = image of a nation
->society diversifies which sees individual achievement through work not through birth
-> Wife of Bath: new role of women, sexuality, marriage
Function of metaphors: (-> In the exam!)
-> spring = new beginning, late medieval society turns into bourgeois society
-> pilgrimage = journey, movement of transition - 57Echoes (Canterbury Tales)1. T. S. Eliot: "The Waste Land" (1922) (spring metaphor)
2. Graham Swift: Last Order (1964)
(journey metaphor)
3. Karen Aribisala: Kicking Tongues (1998) (journey metaphor)
4. Patience Agbabi: Telling Tales (2014) - 58From Beowulf and Canterbury Tales to Le Morte Darthur (plus recap of what has been learned at 1:05:00)Beowulf:
-> disintegration of early feudal society
-> character conception: heroic types in decline
Canterbury Tales:
-> formation of early middle-class society
-> character conception: celebrates diverse subjectivities
Le Morte Darthur:
-> disintegration of feudal society and chivalric society (Rittertum)
-> character conception: privliges feudal values from a conservative aristocratic perspective - 59The War of the Roses (1455-85)Red Rose: The House of Lancaster
White Rose: The House of York
-> series of civil wars between the two houses for the throne of England and control of the state
->Results:
-Richard III was defeated by Henry Tudor VII -> Centralisation of Power (Absolutism)
- Decimation of nobles and their armies; population was not affected
-country increasingly dominated by gentry (squirearchy = large landowners), yeomen (rich freeholders), and cities (economically dominated by middle class = artisans, merchants)
-Economy based on wool manufacture (paid-wage labour) and flourishing trade
->Change of distribution of power among the classes - 60National Mythology: King Arthur-> The Round Table
- 61Sir Thomas Malory (ca. 1405-71)-> unitl 20th c. little known until scholars discovered criminal records of him
-had been arrested for plundering a priory in 1451 + escaping from prison, plundering, extortion, rape - 62Le Morte Darthur-> culmination of tradition that spans the whole Middle Ages: reworks French and English tales about King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table and adds new material
-> printed by Caxton in 1485 to entertain and to spread the moral values of the aristocracy for the emergent middle classes - 63Le Morte Darthur: Methodologyterminology of literary analysis:
genre: courtly or chivalric romance
literary theory:
New Historicism, Gender Studies, Reader Response, Poststructuralism - 64What is Le Morte Darthur about?->knight arrends = representatives of chivalric (moral) values: bravery, honour, generosity, good manners, courtly love
-> contradictions of feudal society: feudal lords vs. each other and vs. the king who needed their support against the church and cities - 65How is Le Morte Darthur constructed?genre: Courtly Romance in prose (not a novel)
-chivalric: heroic, spectacular adventures, ideal love
-magic and mythic elements
-archetypical situations and symblos (wasteland, grail)
structure: eight books but episodic
1. Birth and Rise of Arthur
2. War against Romans
3. Books of Lancelot
4...
setting: Britain and France, unspecified time -> Age of an idealised Knighthood - 66Why is Le Morte Darthur constructed this way?Function of plot and character construction and the melancholy mood: mourn the end of the Middle Ages and its idealised courtly culture, express unease with social transition
Funciton of romance genre: longing for an alternative world = conservative utopia
Function of Malory's work: nostalgic version of the past as moral support for the contemporanoues nobility facing the loss of importance and power -> was meant to console them - 67Refusing an EndArthur recieces mortal wound by his son-> kills the son -> returns his sword Excalibur to the lake -> (Magic gets returned -> no more magic in the world) -> Tale leaves open whether Arthur died, since a good death was crucial to medieval person that is important -> Arthur remains suspended between Christain salvation and Pagan Celtic Paradise
Poststructuralist interpretation: Arthur = potent national myth to measure rulers and create national identity - 68Echoes1. Aubrey Beardsley: illustration of Malory's Le Morte Darthur (1893)
2. Mark Twain: A Yankee in King Arthur's court (1889) Satire on Middle Ages
3. The Mists of Avalion / Monty Python: Holy Grail / ... -> illustration of how Arthur is used in pop-culture and how much money it makes nowadays - 69Stunde 316th and 17th c.: Elizabethan and Jacobean Britain
- 70Late 15th to early 17th Century-> Tudor England = ruling dynasty of Welsh origin (1495-1603)
->Elizabethan Age: named after Eliazbeth I (r. 1558-1603) -> Tudor myth of stability
->Jacobean Britain: James I of England (r. England and Ireland, 1603-1625) -> King James Bible = Authorized Version (1611)
->Scottish Stuart Dynasty ruled until 1714 and was replaced by the Hanoverians - 71Characteristics of the Periodsociety: transition from a freudal to a bourgeois, middle-class structure
politics: absolute monarchy founded by Henry VII -> based upon new class relations: old nobility - newly created aristocracy under Henry VII - gentry - emergent middle classes
religion: reformation -> Anglican Church
economy: development of the clothing industry, importance of 'discoveries' and chartered companies for trade, agricultural revolution - 72Economy15th c.: England switches from producing raw material (wool) to manufacturing cloth -> cloth industry = market econonomy on capitalist principles for export
->"clothiers" (Stofffabrikanten) = Nucleus of an entrepreneurial class - 73Aside: Mercantilism-> the exchange of commodities in strictly national terms
->Every nation needs a balance of trade in favour of its own country in order to maximise the national stock of money
Principles:
-Accumulate as much money as possible
-import cheap goods -> export expensive products
-put protective duties on foreign goods
-build new industries
-improve infrastructure
-Unify the system of measurement and weights
-Acquire colonies
-Build a national merchant fleet - 74Agricultural Revolution16th c. (and 18th c.):
extensive enclosures = landowners fenced in fields, commons and waste land
-> Conversion of open field system into enclosed farm land
1700: Half of England and Wales enclosed
-> Result: Small-scale Land farming is transformed into large-scale sheep farming -> Result: large numbers of landless -> Social unrest - 75Henry VIII and the English Revolution.
- 76Aside: Horrible Histories-> Terrible Tudors
(To teach history in school -> have a lot of different themes) - 77Aside: Henry VIII songWifes:
Divorced
beheaded
died
divorced
beheaded
survived - 78Henry VIII (b.1491, r. 1509-47)-> defence of Pope and decleration of Catholic convictions -> title: Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith)
-> political problem: succession, power struggle with Rome
-> private problem: divorce, second marriage
Solution: establishment of King's authority over the clergy (via parliament) by
1. giving him jurisdiction over the clergy and 'canon law' (1532)
2. ending all payments of the Clergy to Rome (1534)
3. giving the king the sole right to fill ecclesiastical positions (1534) -> He can decide who gets Archbishop, ...
4. Proclaiming him the 'only supreme head on earth of the Church of England' -> 'Act of Surpremacy' (1534) (Important!!)
5. dissolving of monasteries (1536) whose endownments were confiscated by the king
Main beneficiaries: The Gentry
-> Got land and positions at the king's court -> responsibility -> self-confidence
-> In turn, support of separation from Roman Catholic Church! - 79The Great Chain of BeingSociety was still conceptualised in term of an organic, unified and closed whole as created by God = Chain of Being (This was not the reality! This was an image of society created by the aristocacy!)
->society held together by a system of mutual obligations: each class performs a function and enjoys certain rights
-> metaphors: Chain / Ladder (remember!)
-interrelated, but static at the same time
-connotations of structure and harmony - 80Social StructureBreaks, frictions, incoherences
-> Challenges:
-huge army of unemployed poor -> remedies = legislation such as vagrancy laws, poor laws (16th - 19th c.)-> parish relief and workhouses (Poor get punished becuase they are poor and get shut away in certain areas (workhouses) to achieve parish relief.)
-social mobility: towns absorb large number of the poor
-increasingly stratified society due to the development of the free market and rise of merchant class
-religious friction due to Puritans: individual reading of the Bible as releant to the Clergy, challenge the church structure as a whole - 81Class: Terminology and Developments-> Classis (latin) = a division of the people of Rome according to their property -> English late 16th c.
-> 19th c.: new way of thinking due to economic change and capitalist property relations
-> Industrial Revolution -> new classes
=industrial middle class
=working class (proletariat) - 82Class structure (1)1.Royalty
2.Peerage/Nobility (Hochadel)
->1.Duke (herzog)
->2.Maquis (Markgraf)
->3.Earl (Graf)
->4.Viscount (Vizegraf)
->5.Baron
(These titles started with Duke in 1137 and expanded gradually to viscount in 1440 -> evolving process)
-> Peerage = formal body of aristocracy -> Right to sit in the House of Lords (Still active today!)
-> Division between 'Lords Temporal' and 'Lords Spiritual' (archbishops, Bishops)
->statisitcs:
- ca.55 peers/families in 1600, less than 200 in 1700 -> Own ca. 15% of the land
3. Gentry (Landadel, nieder Adel)
=Technically 4 seperately defined groups, inferior only to the ranks of peerage
1.Baronet
2.Knight
3.Squire (Knappe / Gutsherr)
4.Gentleman
-> Ca. 10 000 families owning about 45% of the land, living without physical labour off landed income
(Agrarian Economy -> Owning the land is key!!)
->5% of the population (Nobility and Gentry) owning 60% of the land - 83Class structure (2)4. The Middling Sort
->1.Yeoman (Großbauer)
-rich farmers owning land
-ca.160 000
-Held to be lowest stratum of society capable of governing (Important, because they shared social ranks like juror, churchwarden, ... with the gentry)
->2.Merchants (Handelsbürgertum)
-economically, the most powerful of the urban 'modern' classes, growing very rich in Early Modern England
-great merchants (esp. form London, Bristol, Hull) even begin ranking with nobility in terms of wealth and economic influence, not yet political influence
Professionals:
16th c.: applied to limit number of occupations, like doctors / lawyers /...
18th c.: social status way above trade and handicrafats -> upper ranks of law, church and maybe the military - 84Class Structure (3)The Lower/Poorer Sort
->husbandmen (Kleinbauern)
-> smaller artisans
-> peasants / servants / wage labourers / beggars - 85The Tudor Monarchs-> establishment of centalised national English monarchy -> annexation of Wales (1536) and Ireland (1541)
-> Self-image: 'Govern by the Grace of God'
-> Limitation of Power: No governance without Parliament's consent - 86elizabeth I : immortal body and motal body(political(most important ,power aging of the aging body) and physical body) "cult of love"elizabth as an individual -> body politc = perfect and immortal
description of a pic of elizabeth showing how royal she is ( not marieng to their husand but to their people)
(christs marriage to the church, virginary,do not signifit physical like) - 87the armada: engish navy surperior naval force of the world( international trade for englich traders) (rules of the sea, on the verge of ruling the worldCherted companies: joint stock companies (aktiengesellschaften), trade specifc goods on certain goods over the world
great fortunes (impact on states revenue) - 88early modern english( modern english spelling is the state of late middle english )(, pronuncition changed sinced due to the great vowel shift(mismatch of spelling and pronunciation today)In general there is a developement of the pronoms:13th (thou, thy thee = du ,
ye and you = sie)..... - 89Literature: (renaissance means there are more readers, cultural exchange, (Latin language of learning and greek (rediscovering) _> increasing production and consuption of literaly texts( and debates)thomas more utopia:((background of thomas more (p.58)),( nowhere or no place, role of morals and politices in organisation. influend by platos republic
- 90Methology( non fictionaly basiernd auf griechische redekunst,) (new historicism, non fiction, cultural phenmenon)about?:analysis of situation in england ( ill in england, hungry farmers, debates on intellectuals should serves as counsellors in pollitics)
( - 91quotes of utopia book 1 + 2how is utopia constructed?
book 1: debate modelled on dialogues of classical philosophers(plato and cicero)
book 2: fictional travalogue-> unreliable narrator discussess his observations and opinions with a fictional thomas more - 92constructed? classical rhetorical and political theory (book1: deliberative oratory book2: demonstrative oratory(aim self sufficiency of society)function of dialogue form: crtitsim of social policy in early mordern england
radical political analysis: private property prevents just distribution of goods
radical utopian vision: rejects materialism, suggets an early form of elected government - 93Reception: 16th circulated through humanists throughout Europe was aprciated for: freee public education, careers open to talent and freedom of thought, from cuommunists to abolish private poverty, register unease of this textaside more vs crowmwell
-> ende 25.4.2018 - 94Lecture 416th and 17th c.
- 95PlayhousesPurpose-built permanent playhouses
-> The Theatre (1578)
-> The Rose (1587)
Competition among rival entrepreneurs as -> indicates growin theatrical landscape
Features:
-Stage open on three sides -> not proscnenium stage (Guckkastenbühne) -> Audience as 'fly on the wall'
-'groundlings' around stage
-word scenery, (limited means of the set) (Performance in broad daylight -> audience reactions as integral part of performance)
Locations:
->In 'Liberties' -> Outside of administration of City of London -> Beyond control of Aldermen (mostly Puritans)
->Close to brothels, pits for bear- and cock-fighting - 96The Globe(Shakespeare's playhouse)
- 97Blackfriars (1608)indoor candle-lit theatre
->entrance fees: much more expensive
->seats only, no groundlings
->aristocratic plays
-> Beginning of class-based theatrical tradition - 98Playwrights-> Collaboration and reworking of existing material to meet high demand for new plays
-it was not like modern concepts of 'author' and 'copyright'
-Plays were usually 'property' of theatre companies who bought them for performance
-> Contracts with companies for writers to produce a certain number of place in a certain time period
->Many writers:
1.Ben Jonson
2.Thomas Kyd
3.John Lyly
4.Christopher Marlow
5.John Webster
Shakespeare: playwright and businessman
->Shareholder of The Globe
->Shareholfer of his own company Lord Chamberlain's Men - 99Actors-Only men
-Lower social ranks
-Acting was not a respectable occupation
-shareholders in the company
-hired by contract, moving from ony company to another - 100Theatre CompaniesStructure:
->8-10 actors as sharholders
->Staff hired on contract: ca. 10 actors, musicians, backstage staff, ...
->unstable work environment, often changing staff
Patronage of court and aristocracy
->Financially safe, but court able to exercise power over theatre - 101AudiencesStatistics:
15-20% of the people living in reach of theatres
-ca. 2500 play-goers every day at The Globe
-Theatre was affordable entertainment (Pit: 1penny)
make-up:
-Theatre was open to all social groups and classes and genders
-Different levels of education in the audience -> Not known how many puns, linguistic details, etc. in Shakespeare's play were understood -> Catering to all levels of education - 102Performances-Very high demand
-Performances 6 days a week
-different play each day
-New plays every two weeks - 103William Shakespeare (1564-1616).
- 104Shakesperean Comedy: "As You Like It"Terminology of literary analysis:
genre: drama
sub-genre: pastoral comedy
Literary Theory:
Structuralism, Gender Studies, Queer Studies, Marxism - 105Shakesperean Comedy: "As You Like It" (2)What is it about?
-> Duke Senior vs. Frederick (Frederick usurping duke -> Duke Senior living in banishment in Forest Arden)
->Rosaling and Celia:
-> Duke's daughter allowed to stay at court as close friend -> Flees from court disguised as a man (Funny: Man dressed up as woman dressed up as a man -> Shakespeare plays with that)
Oliver vs. Orlando
Orlando and Rosalind - 106Shakesperean Comedy: "As You Like It" (3)How is it constructed?
Setting:
-Forest Arden
-> largely realistic setting, but not actually real
-Forest Arden vs. city and court
-> Place of culture and education but also characterised as violent, aggressive, cruel, ambitious,ruthless -> conflicts
Character Conception of Rosalind:
->Longest female part in all of Shakespeare's plays
->She dominates the play
Agency: Initiating courtship of the man she loves, controlling it
Ending: Formal submission to father and husband = victory of patriarchal conventions? , but: premises of conventions challenged throughout the whole play
Bare in mind:
1. Boy actor playing woman 2. dressed up as woman (Ganymede) 3. pretends to be a woman on whom orland can practise courtship of Rosalind and who fends oo a shepherdess's amorous advances - 107Shakesperean Comedy: "As You Like It" (4)Character Conceptions: Constructions of Rank / Class and Gender
Oliver:
rank/class: nature vs. nurture / culture: Are gentlemen born or made?
Celia (=Aliena) and Rosalind (=Ganymede)
->Use appearences, maners, behavoiur, ... as disguise -> transform social identities by blurring rank/class and gender distinctions
Self-Referential Monologue (Meta-Monologue): About the importance of theatre itself (Alle the world's a stage, ...) - 108Shakesperean Comedy: "As You Like It" (5)Why is it constructed that way?
Thesis statement: play questions social conventions and eplores potential alternatives -> Soical citique
Aim: inculcating scepticism among audience about whatever appears self-evident, 'natural' and 'given'
Function of Setting:
Forest Arden:
->Beyond state jurisdiction and social constraings
->promises refuge, freedom
->provides room to question conventions and explore alternatives
Effects of Cross-Dressing sexual identity
->unfixing gender stereotypes + more fluied sexual identity
Function of Ending:
->For characters:
-restoration of gender and class identities -> reinstating status quo ante
But: Challenging the very premises of gender and class/rank conventions!
->For audience:
Remembering alternative social relations and their utopian potential - 109Shakesperean Romance: The TempestTerminology of literary analysis:
Genre: Drama
Sub-genre: Romance (different def. than before, given by contemporaries of Shakespeare. Especially used to highlight the 'fantastic' element
Literary Theory:
Structuralism, Gender Studies, Marxism, Post-colonialism
What is The Tempest about?
->Opening scene: Violent storm
->Tempest and shipwreck orchestrated by Prospero to take revenge on his brother Antonio, the Duke of Milan
->12y. earlier: Prospero and his daughter Miranda came to live on a supposedly uninhabited island, which was actually inhabited by Caliban - 110Shakesperean Romance: The Tempest (2)How is The Tempest constructed?
Characterisation:
-Prose vs. blank verse = Indicator of social rank
->boatsmen = prose / noblemen = blank verse
-Telling names:
-> Prospero: prosperity -> colonialism
->Miranda: wonderful, to be wondered at -> gender
->Caliban: anagram of cannibal - 111Shakesperean Romance: The Tempest (3)Why is it constructed that way?
Function of Opening:
->Tempest as indifferent to authority and power of noblemen
->Tempest and shipwreck as moment of crisis
-Breaking with social hierarchies and challenging class differences + Character's equality confirmed by common mortality, cutting across classes and rank
-> Opening scene questions the very basis of the characters' roles and relationships in the play - 112Shakesperean Romance: The Tempest (4)Postcolonial Reading:
->Setting: terra nullius
->Caliban as representatice of indigenous communities
-exploitation by colonisers but cast as stereotypically violent male native -> Later: Black men vs. White women
(Many more other readings possible!) - 113Shakesperean Romance: The Tempest (5)Echoes:
1. George Lamming: Water with Berries (1971)
(-> many more writers used The Tempest concerning colonialism, this is an ex.)
2. Marina Warner: Indigo (1992)
(->Feminist reading)
3.Peter Greenaway, dir.: Prospero's Books (1991) (-> experimental film adaptation)
-> post-modern film adaptation for highly educated, with the play familiar, audience who is open to Defamiliarisation -> Greenaway uses Defamiliarisation of the characters and so on (Film ex. shown in lecture: Caliban naked without any hair, showing distress through ballet)
4.Aldous Huxley: Brave New World (1932)
(-> based on a quote from Miranda, who says "(...) O brave new world (...)"-> Shakespeares romance with a white utopian world grounded on exploitation of others-> Turns into a dystopia in the 20th c. -> Aldous Huxley: Brave New World) - 114Poetry The Sonnet Form-> Wyatt and Sidney adapted the Petrarchan sonnet to the English language and court culture under Henry VIII !
-> Petrarch: "Canzioniere" (1356-1360)
-sonnet = Latin for 'little sound' or 'song'
-themes: active male subjectivity against a passive female as object, control of disappointment and pain caused by courtly love
- Structure = 14 lines: octave -> volta -> sestet
- - 115Shakesperean Sonnets->Written 1592-1598 (early in his career)
Themes: (Sonnets)
1-17: procreation sonnets
78-86: rival poet
18-126: motif of transience
Adresses:
1-126: addressed to a young man
127-152: addressed to a woman ('dark lady')
153,154: Epigrams
Structure: ("Every English student has to know this")
-> 3 Quatrains, 1 Couplet
-> Each Quatrain deals with a separate aspect of the theme introduced in the first line
->The 'argument' is resolved in the final couplet
->alternate rhyme: abab cdcd efef gg
-> iambic pentameter: (unstressed - stressed with 5 stresses per line)
-> system of parallels and contrasts
->dominant tropes: antithesis, hyperbole, paradox, oxymoron
->Function: to bridge irreconcilable differences, unite opposites - 116W. Shakespeare: "Sonnet 130"Terminology of literary analysis:
genre: Poetry
sub-genre: Sonnet
Literary Theory:
Gender Studies, Structuralism, Stylistics, Reader Response Theory
What is it about?
-> Main topic: Female beauty and the dominant poetic conventions of describing it
->Construction of femininity: description of what she is not, yet expression of love
->relationship between lyric I and his mistress
-> love as paradox
-> tone: ironic, relaxed, light - 117W. Shakespeare: "Sonnet 130"(2)How is it constructed?
Speech situation:
->monologic speech = dramatic quality
->addressee not mistress, but lyric thou
Structure:
foot: Iamb
metre: pentameter
rhythm: enjambement
stanza: three quatraints, one couplet -> sonnet
phonological structures:
quatraints: alternate rhyme shemes (abab cdcd efef)
rhyming couplet (gg)
Mophological structures:
-> Anaphora / Epanalepsis / word choice: "dun" / "reek"
Syntactic structures:
->Parallelism / Asyndeton / Inversion / Ellipsis
Semantic structures:
similes / metaphors - 118W. Shakespeare: "Sonnet 130" (3)Why is it constructed that way?
Function of hyperbole: deconstruction of the blazon(catalogue of female beauty) by exaggerating and reversing its elements
Effect: conventional (Petrarchan) mode of representing female beauty shown to be a convention devoid of originality (The poem = a meta powm. By using the Structures it uses, it comments on the petrarchan way to describe female beauty and deems it unoriginal or boring!)
inscribed readers: courtiers, educated Londoners (circulated in manuscript) -> to show that he is educated and to proof himself - 119Metaphysical Poetry->17th c. metaphysical poets: inclined to the personal and intellectual complexity and concentration displayed in the poetry of John Donne
->others: Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, John Cleveland, ...
->but no formal 'school'
->rediscovered in the early 20th c.: Modernist poets T.S. Eliot - 120Metaphsical Poetry (2)Characteristics:
->Images and conceits (very elaborate metaphors)
->Wit and ingenuity
->dexterous use of colloquial speech
->considerable flexibility of rhythm and metre
->complex themes
->liking for paradox
->caustic humour
->keenly felt awareness of mortality - 121John Donne (1572-1631)->born into devout Roman Catholic family -> problem: public career in Protestant (and fiercly anti-Catholic) England (-> No public career)
1590s: converted to the Church of England
-> Distinguished career as court preacher
-> Some 160 sermons survive preached to monarch and couriers, lawyers and London magistrates, city merchants and trading companies - 122John Donne's Poem "The Flea"Terminology of literary analysis:
Genre: Poetry
Sub-genre: metaphysical poem
Literary theory:
New Historicism, Structuralism, Stylistics
What is the Flea about?
-> New concept of love as sensual and mental experience = stress on sexual fulfillment
->use of wit and clever argument to intellectually combat insecurity
->concept of self in privates spehere which provides stability in a changing world (which there was at the beginning of 17th c.)
-> But, complex metaphors and conceits bespeak the difficulties that come with it - 123John Donne's Poem "The Flea" (2)How is it constructed?
Speech situation:
->Dramatic and compelling immediacy (All Donne poems are)
->explicit subjectivity: concrete situation = in bed
Structure:
feet: iamb and trochee
metre: tetrameter (4 per line)
Some mophological and syntactic structures
Semantic structures:
->Personification / hyperbole / pun
-> Metaphors
->Conceit: the flea as amarriage bed and marriage temple - 124John Donne's Poem "The Flea" (3)Why is it constructed that way?
Conventional animal metaphor: flea = sexual love (source domain: everday life with vermin on humans)
Special in Donne: Complex line of argumentation to convince the female object of the male speaker's love to give up her resistance
->1st Stanza: flea has no respect for man-made rules and mingles the blood of the lovers
->2nd stanza: conceit based on legal and religious discourse (flea = marriage bed and marriage temple) stress the religious connotation (killed flea = killed lovers = three murders = sacrilege and sin)
-> 3rd Stanza: turn the resistant lover's counterargument against herself = love is as harmless as killing a flea (male perspective!) - 125Lecture 517th c. Britain
- 126PeriodisationNünning:
1500-1700 Renaissance
1649-1660 Commonwealth and Protectorate
1660-1700 Restoration
Poplawski:
1485-1660 Renaissance
1660-1780 Restoration and 18th c.
-> Different distinctions between epochs -> not one right way
->terminology mixes cultural and literary history, politics, historiography
- Frühe Neuzeit = early modern period
-early modern period vs. Renaissance = emphasis on processes of modernisation vs. emphasis on humanist culture
-> For this lecture series early modern period
->This lecture uses Seeber's timeline aus "Englische Literaturgeschichte"
-Die Frühe Neuzeit: Von Morus bis Milton
-Von der Restauration zur Vorromantik - 127Periodisation -> Definition of Literature1. literature = representation of choices = selection of possibilities
2. literature is not the truth it is not a mirror or record of historical events
3. literature = different political interests, norms and values -> dominant vs. emergent elements -> contradictions -> ambiguity
(Gorisch's definition of literature!)
Ernst Bloch: Das Prinzip der Hoffnung (1954)
-> Literate = "Laboratory" = a field in which writers experiment with conflicts, their forms, causes and solutions - 128Recap of History learned in previous sessions (Watch!!)(important!!!) -> Church development ->Literature development ->Why Shakespeare ->Economy -> New Historicism and Cultural Materialism ->Task of criticstarting at minute 10
-
ending at minute 30
Must Watch! - 129History of theatre plays13th - 15th c.: mystery plays -> mystery cycles
-organised by artisan guilds: laymen peformed biblical scenes in Middle English on pageants, often combined with burlesque, grotesque
1490/1500: Morality plays, most important one "Everyman"
-professional actors: dramatic allegories on human virtues with comic elements
Interludes: performed at court or 'great houses' at intervals
-> All took influence on Shakespeare's writing - 130(Side Note) University Wits (Cambridge, Oxford)Highly educated young men that put international plays on the English stages
- 131PuritanismWhat is Puritanism?
->religious doctrine -> aim = to purify the Anglican Chruch in theology, liturgy, hierarchical organisation
->ethical and moral outlook -> values
->vehicle to voice political interests -> social change
Terminology: Puritanism = non-conformism = Dissent
-> Puritans purely English phenomenon
-> they were excluded from state schools, universities ... -> Result: they went into trade! - 132Who are the Puritans and why did Puritanism arise?Agents (Need to know by heart!) = educated, enterprising, economically successful COMMERCIAL CLASSES in towns and the economically active GENTRY!
->Merchants and manufacturers as 'new' social group is excluded in the 'Great Chain of Being' -> they start to think of themselces as seperate / special group -> long alliance with the Crown begins to dissolve (Late 16 th c.)
->Protest against corrup Chruch, godless Court and spendthrigt aristocracy -> ruin the country
->Puritan desire to reform the nation - 133What are Puritan beliefs? (Learn by heart)->Original sin(Erbsünde) vs. free will of the individual (what they felt in everyday business life)
->Distinguish themselves from corrupt ruling classes by behaviour and buissness discipline
->Self-image as the elect, God chosen people = belief in predestination -> Interpreted success in business as indicator of moral superiority and God's grace
Values:
- Activity = man's free gift of salvation
- self-examination, self-discipline, self-control -> consience
- Personal relationship to God: Bible, preaching -> Conversion / Conversion experience (->Once in a lifetime experience with God in order to achieve salvation, if not you are doomed. A lot of people stressesd about that very much)
-> Puritans wanted to achieve conversion by their own individual bible study, rather than going to church
- laborara est orare = acquisition of wealth = moral duty
- no luxuries but ascetic lifestyle, earnestness, sobriety - 134Paradox Puritanism1. Democratic: conviction that some are God's chosen people and everybody (regardless of birth and social status) might be one of the elect
2. Elitist: interpretation of success as triumph of determinate discipline and hard work, pride in ascetic lifestyle, contempt for those considered to be less resolute and disciplined - 135Aside: Puritanism in ScholarshipMax Weber: Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (1904)
R.H. Tawney: Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926) - 136Aside: Max Weber (1864-1920)- Geman sociologist and political economist
-Profound influence on sociological theory: Demandsobjectivity in scholarship and analyses the motives behind human action
-> Proposition: Calvinist religious doctrines, esp. predestination, prepared the rise of capitalism
-=ideas that promote the rational pursuit of economic gain -> vocation = secular calling -> ascetic lifestyle - 137Aside: R.H. Tawney (1880-1962)->disciple of Weber, Christian Socialist, Professor of Economic History at London School of Economics (LSE)
->proposition: individualism and the ethic of hard work and thrift of Calvinist Protestantism fostered industrial organisation and an efficient workforce in norther Europe -> Puritanism = ideational representation of the new spirit of 'the free market' and the relatively free individual - 138The English Revolution (1640-1689) (1) -> Dates that you need to know by heart1649: Regicide -> Republic
1653: Protectorate
1660: Restoraton of monarchy
1688: Glorious Revolution: William of Orange
1689: Bill of Rights
-> End result (even though not directly pursuied) Constitutional Monarchy - 139The English Revolution (1640-1689) (2)Concepts:
- Revolution: a complete and forcible overthrow of a government or social order in favour of a new system
The Revolution:
-> Struggle of the heterogeneous middle classes for political power -> compromise between upper middle classes and monarchy
1st phase: armed struggle between the Crown and Parliament -> mid 1640s
2nd Phase: Open struggle between different ranks of Parliamentarians about how to condct the Revolution = Presbyterians vs. Independents -> Struggle ended in regicide (1649) = the work of the Independents (against Royalists and Presbyterians) - 140Concepts of "Commonwealth"Commonwealth -> two historically different meanings
1st: 17th c. Commonwealth of England = term used to describe the period of republican government in Britain during the Interregnu, (1649-1660)
> Supre authority = House of Commons
> Executive power of monarchy taken up by Council of State
(2nd: 20th c. Commonwealth of Nations = until today a loose association of over 50 independent countries which were formerly part of the British Empire ) - 141Restoration as Revolution?Depending on political perspectibe the opinions of the contemporaries divided about Revolution
-> Restoration of the monarchy is not a revolution
-> To the propertied classes, the Revolution was a complete success: Church and crown lands confiscated during the commonwealth were restored -> squirarchy as basis of Royalists -> later Tories
(-> Think it is a Glorious Revolution)
-> To the Classes without property, it remained unfinished
(->Do not think it is glorious)
-> Glorious Revolution = Victory of the Presbyterians = merchants, rising financial capital (including aristocracy) -> back into state church -> later Whigs (liberal politicians in England) - 142Causes of Instability1. multiple kingdoms
2. religious divisions
3. Perpetuation of financial and political system -> King needed more money to finance war + rising inflation -> Parliament had to vote on rising taxation, etc. -> Unrest
4. Long-term economic, political and cultural developments
- decline of aristocracy
-rise of gentry and middle classes
-slow shift from a feudal to a capitalist society - 143Agents:Royalists (north) : Members of the nobility, supporters of the king
Parlamentarians (south) : diverse group in religious belief -> supporters of Parliament
-> Presbyterians:
-conservative upper middle class (esp. Based in London)
-Majority in House of Commons
-favoured a compromise with the king and hierarchical church structures
-18th c.: Presbyterians, Baptists -> Unitarians
->Independents
-radical middle class
-small gentry, yeomen farmers, tradesmen
-New Model Army: Democratic structure with soldier's councils, prayer meetings, discussions = functioned as a politcal party
-> In favour of complete victory with a radical political and religious settlement
Parliamentarians:
-> Sects: such as Anabaptists, Baptists, Quakers, Fifth Monarchy Men
-> Levellers
-Lower middle classes = craftsment, tradesmen both hostile towards king and nobility
- Demand extensive religious and civil liberties, abolition of taxes, democratic control of the army, ...
-> increasingly suppressed by Cromwell - 144Agents: (2)Diggers:
->radical group of poor agricultural workers and craftsmen
-Demand suffrage reform
-> led by Gerrard Winstanley
-condemned monarchs, landwoners, lawyers as enemies of the poor - 145Aside: Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)-Member of the minor gentry
-Educated at Cambridge and in London
-Served in Parliament
-Exceptional military rise, created and led the 'Ironsides'!!!
-Convinced Parliament to establish the New Model Army
-Played a decisive role in the trial and execution of Charles I
-Made himself Lord Protector (king-like figure) and for the 1st time in history unigied the British Isles under on central government
-Yet refused the crown in 1657 - 146Bill of Rights (1689)-> Crowning piece of legislation of the Glorious Revolution
-> Substantial shift in the blance of power between the monarchy and Parliament
yet: a statement of rights of the people vs. a bill of limitations upon the authority of the new monarchs
-> Constiutional monarchy: King = King in Parliament
1. Parliaments had to be held frequently
2. Elections had to be free
3. Freedom of speech
4. Parliamenty consent need - 147Monty Python (1962)Song: Oliver Cromwell
- 148Politics, Philosophy, ScienceEarly 16th to mid 17th c.: development of the humanities and sciences -> Copernican Revolution: heliocentric model with sun as centre of the solar system (Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei -> Newton)
->Why? Arising from practical economic needs: cartography, navigation, time keeping, accountancy
Politics: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Philosophy: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and John Locke (1632-1704)
Science: Isaac Newotn (1642-1727) - 149Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)- Educated in Oxford -> tztor to aristocratic ffamily -> Grand Tour of Europe in 1610
-Left England for Paris in 1640 with the first Royalist exiles
-Tutor to Prince of Whales (later Charles II)
-Rationalist and materialist philosopher and scientist who rejects abstract assumptions and metaphorical language
->Ex.: Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (1640)
-English Civil War (Most important for Hobbes): Turn to politics
->Result: Leviathan:or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth Exxlesiastical and Civil (1651) - 150Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan (1651)Reception:
->Contract theory rejected by Royalists as an argument for Cromwell's Commonwealth
->idea of sovereign disliked by Parliamentarians
->sovereign as head of church rejected by Presbyterians and Dissenters
->Banned as a blasphemous book during the Commonwealth
->Today: 1st modern, bourgeois theory of state = a classic of political science (Important!) - 151Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan (1651) (2)Structure and Arguments:
1. Of Man (The most important one!!! Man is wolf to man, ... need to be placed with hobbes in the exam)
- all human beings are equal and compete with each other for the power to realiser their aims = self-preservation and individual hapiness
-Result: Man is wolf to man -> war of all against all -> life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"
- Main motivation to set up a state = fear of death
-> Social contract = Gives birth to the Leviathan = invincible sea monster in Old Testament's Book of Job = unlimited state authority based on fear an punishment
-subjects vest their individual rights and all power in the state to gain collective security
2. Of Commonwealth
-contract model = legitimacy of sovereign power and reason for submission of subjects
3. Of a Christian Commonwealth
-relationship between secular and religious powers
-sovereign = head of church and representative of God on earth -> supreme judge
4. Of the Kingdom of Darkness
- against Roman Catholic Church and its claim for power - 152Francis Bacon (1561-1626)The New Atlantis (1627): utopia = affirmative techonological progress
-> Not a social critique as in More, but merely a technoligcally advanced utopia - 153Aside: Expanding Empire-James I (1603-1625): English colonisation of North America started properly -> 1607: foundatio of jamestown (Virginia) -> 1620: Plymouth (Massachusetts Bay)
-During the next 150 years: England fought Spain, Netherlands, France for control of the Continent
-East India Company: expansion English international trade and influence -> English settlement in Indonesia, trading privilges with Japan (1613)
-> New crops -> Europe
-tobacco, tomatoes, coffee, ... - 154Aside: Plantations and Trading Posts-Diverse types of settlements were created
-> Plantations = planting settlers
-> Trading posts = placing traders in foreign parts - 155John Locke (1632-1704)Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
-Human mind = tabula rasa = an empty sheet onto which are inscribed observations and perceptions -> knowledge
-> Influenced key Enlightment philosophers - 156Session 617th-Century Britain:
The Restoration: Epic Poem, Prose and Drama - 157The Puritan Tradition (Need to learn! -> opposite of usually thought of puritans)Recap: Puritans (Learn by heart!)
agents: Economically powerful commercial classes = bankers and businessmen, manufacturers and merchants in town and country (gentry)
-religious doctrine -> predestination-> the elect
-Ethical and moral outlook -> values -> cultural reform (the puritans know how to live better and teach everyone else)
-Vehicle to voice political ideas -> social and political change vs. corruption of ruling class = aristocracy in alliance with Anglican Church
-"Dissenting Academies" (afer 1689 -> for Dissenters (-Non-conformists), the Puritans, which were banned from the usual middle class state professions)-> trained men for business and professions -> maths, science -> 18th c. inventions
(-The state universities kept teaching theology, etc., while these Dissenting Academies focussed on business, math, etc. -> Later a lot of inventions and money made / gained by Puritan Dissenters)
-Weber
-Tawney - 158The Puritan Tradition (2)Semi-literary texts:
-personal diaries
-Manuals -> Defoe's The Family Instructor (1715)
-Spiritual biography -> purpseful pattern of a subject's life is superimposed over the chronology of events -> Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress
Literary Texts:
-Epic poem -> Milton's Paradise Lost
-Prose allegory -> Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress
-Realist novel -> Defoe's Robinson Crusoe - 159John Milton (1608-1674)-Upper middle class
-In favour of the Puritan cause: Wrote in favour of Divorce, Freedom of speech and in support of the regicide (1643-1649)
-Served as a secretary for foreign languages in Cromwell's government
-In 1651: Milton became blind; after the Restoration in 1660, he was arrested but soon released
-> Dictated Paradise Lost between 1658 and 1663, publication interrupted by the Great Plague (1665) and the Great Fire of London (1666)
(Aside: Publication of Paradise Lost:
Contract between Milton and his publisher Samuel Simmons
->Milton was to recieve 5 pounds immediately and 5 pounds once 1,300 copies had been sold
-> Milton got only 10pounds for his masterpiece! (could pay a skilled tradesman for 142 days)) ( -> Not that important) - 160John Milton: Paradise Lost (1667)Milton -> Essential role in the revolution + Puritan believes
->When the revolution is wanted by God, who makes no mistakes, through the Elect (Puritans), then how can it fail?
->For Milton to admit that his ideals were wrong would mean the abandonment of a lifetime of belief and commitment, and to admit that God had failed them would be unthinkable!
-> Reconciliation of two contradictory ideas = Omnipotence of God and the free will of the human being -> Ability to take responsibility for his deeds = ethics of the middle classes - 161John Milton: Paradise Lost (1667) (2)Methodology:
Literary analysis:
Genre: Epic poem
Literary Theory:
New Historicsim, Structuralism, Reception Theory
What is it about?
->Highly self-reflective: writing an epos as topic
-Rewriting of the biblical story of the Fall of Adamn and Eve, but, preceding this, the fall of Satan, because he wants to be greater than God
-> Theological paradox: Fall of Man is the precondition for God to save mankind through his son Jesus Christ -> thwarts Satan's plan to destroy mankind = redeemer - 162John Milton: Paradise Lost (1667) (3)How is it constructed?
- Epic poem originally issued in 10 books
-models: Homer, Virgil
-blank verse, elevated style, flowing rhythm
-Latinate syntax allusions to mythology and Old Testament -> implied readers = highly educated
Central Characters:
-Adam and Eve
-Satan's rebellion against God is presented with admiration despite the wrong cause -> endowed with energy and rhetorical power -> presented with sympathy to win the readers over(, Unlike the Old Testament)
-God the Father
-the Son of God - 163John Milton: Paradise Lost (1667) (4)Why is it constructed this way?
Reception:
-Romantic poet William Blake admired Milton's representation of Satan -> "he was a true poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it"
-Satan = ambiguous representation of modernisation as embodied by Milton's Puritanism and rejected by Restoration
->Redemption for Puritans = within the heart, the individual -> paradise may be lost but human beings are powerful enough to start again
Last Sentence (Very important!!!): "The world was all before them" signals a new beginning on earth not waiting for heaven -> will change themselves and the world = realising the realm of freedom and justice - 164John Bunyan (1628-1688)-Son of a tinker (maker and mender of metal pots) -> Lower Class -> Little formal eudcation
-became a Batist preacher after a spiritual crisis
-sind 1660: persecuted and thrown into jail for unlicensed preaching
-Wrote and preached in jail
-> Composted "The Pilgrim's Progress" during a 2nd prison term in 1675, published in 1678 - 165John Bunyan's: The Pilgrim's ProgressMethodology:
Literary Analysis: Genre: prose allegory
Literary Theory: New Historicism, Structuralism, Reception Theory
What is it about?
-Simplified representation of the average man's (protagonist: Christian) journey through trials and tribulations of life on his way to heaven
-Encounter of homely and commonplace objects: a quagmire, the highway, ...
-Tale of adventure: perilous path wirh giants, wild beasts, hobgoblins, the terrible Apollyon whom Christian must fight - 166John Bunyan's: The Pilgrim's Progress (2)How is it constructed?
genre: prose allegory = Gr. 'speaking otherwise'
-> Allegory = story in verse or prose with a double meaning
-Distinctive feature = structural symbolism (everything in the text is a symbol!!!)
-Typical plot: One in which the 'innocent' is put through a series of experiences (tests) which add up to an imaginative analysis of contemporary 'reality'
Allegory of Christian salvation
-> basic metaphor: life = journey, pilgrimage
-> Function of Allegory: ambiguity = possibility to critcise real events without risk
+
protagonist = proxy of the reader -> action takes place in the mind of the reader
-Very accessible text -> very popular
-Combination of old religious and new Puritan ideals - 167John Bunyan's: The Pilgrim's Progress (3)Why is it constructed this way?
Thesis statement: Historical optimism, esp. of the lower middle classes as implied readers (!) = active responsibility for one's own life vs. Original Sin
Novel = guidance and orientation for readers -> 19th.c: Bible and Pilgrim's Progress = the two most popular books - 168John Bunyan's: The Pilgrim's Progress (4)Echoes:
1. W.M. Thackeray: Vanity Fair (1847/48) (very ironic take on early 19th c. middle class life)
2. Vanity Fair (The popular fashion magazine) - 169The Restoration Tradition:Restoration in art and literature:
-> Narrow definition = 1660-1700
-> Broad definition -> earky 1700s
-Features: new cosmopolitanism, sensuality, gaiety -> wit (geist)
-Period identified with Restoration Comedy = comedy of manners, but other genres flourished too (Operas, farces, heroic plays) - 170John Dryden (= Literary Criticism)Literary Criticism:
- Innumerable critical works, e.g. "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" (1668)
-Topics: process of literary creation, the forms of mordern drama, craft of poetry, ...
-Result: establishment of critical standards - 171Restoration Comedy-Comedy of manners (Sittenkomödie)
->only about aristorcracy or really upper middle class
-After 18 years of no public theatre (theatres closed by Parliament in 1642)-> re-opening -> signalled a rebirth of English drama
-new feature: Actresses
-Poltical outlook: combination of aristocratic monarchism and Hobbesian scepticism -> doubt in 'restored' society
-New ideal: the court with its 'conspicuous consumption' (luxure as status symbol), French fashions
Conventions:
character types:
1. Rake (vornehmer Lebemann)
2. coquette (kokette Frau)
3. cuckold (gehörnter Ehemann)
4. prude (prüder Mensch)
5. fop (geck)
6. young couple
7. blocking father
-Character constellations and plots, full of sexual intrigue, based on deception of the witless by the truly witty
-Happy Ending for the 'gay couple' = stylisch, aristocratic, urban London youth
-Essential: Witty dialogues = verbal duel of a highly subtle, intellectural nature -> use unusual similes, metaphors, pardoxes - 172Theatres and Audiences-Smaller audiences, often aristocratic
-New theatre architechtrue:
->Proscenium stage (Guckkastenbühne) with apron, doors, trap doors
-Scenery now had borders and perspective
-costumes contemporary and designed to look expensive and flattering - 173Developments in the Late 17th c.-Opposition to the devadence of the Restoration comedy came ahead with Jeremy Collier's "Short view of the Immortality and Profaneness of the English Stage"(1698) = middle-class view
-New comedy of conscience and reformation signaled by Colley Cibber's "Love's LAst Shift" (1696) and immediately challenged by John Vanbrugh#s sparkling sequel "The Relapse"
-Plays of George Farquhar are the outstanding works of transition from the Restoration comedy of manners to 18 th c. sentimental comedy - 174Aphra Behn (1640-1689)-Considerd the 1st professional woman writer in english (lived off her writing)
- One of the most productive dramatist of her time
-Proto-novel: "Oroonoko" or "The Royal slave" (1688)
-worked as a spy for the British corwn - 175Aphra Behn: Oroonoko (1688)Literary analysis:
Genre: Prose
Sub-genres: memoir, travelogue, biography, romance = proto-novel
literary theory:
Gender and Postcolonial Studies, Structuralism, Post-structuralism - 176Aphra Behn: Oroonoko (1688) (2)How is it constructed?
->Proto-novel
->Claims to be a memoir and travel narrative of Behn's years ind colony of Surinam, as well as the biography of Oroonoko whom his captors called 'Ceasar'
->Romance elements
(Following: don't learn by heart, just keep in mind that these conventions influenced Oroonoko)
Sub-Genres = Conventions = Code (!!)
1. Romance: Character coneption, atcion
2. travelogue: business-minded ecploration of colony
3. revenge tragedy
4. book of martyrs: torture scene, Oroonoko = martyr to his own belief
5. political allegory: Glorious Revolution
6. anti-slavery tract
7. early novel
8. dramatic structure: exposition, build-up, climax, anti-climax, catastrophe = Behn as playwright - 177Aphra Behn: Oroonoko (1688) (3)Poststructuralist Questions:
-The story show middle-class English as jailors and abusers of an aristocrat and the newly englightened English as cruel oppressors and torturers -> traces of Behn's (anti-Whig) Toryism?
-Behn draws a dark picture of Europeans in Africa and South America -> Indigenous people sometimes called peacuful, sometimes called slave (-> No clear standpoint)
-Story is told by female narrator in a position of danger, but also due to business insight in a position of power
-Is it a text of white superiority -> therefore a colonial text?
OR
-already critical of Western domination -> therefore a postcolonial text? - 178Session 7The 18th c. Britain: The Rise of Capitalist market economy
- 179Terminology: Capitalism-Sociological definition = a system of wage labour and commodity profuction for sale, exchange, and profit, rather than for the immediate need of the producers
-Main theoreticians: Karl Marc (based on Adam Smith and David Ricardo), W.I. Lenin, Max Weber, Ernest Mandel
-Marx: Capitalism = distinct economic system arising dorm the 16th c. in England reaching the stage of industrial capitalism from late 18th c.
Types of Capitalism: (sociological dictionary)
1. Mercantile capitalism = trading in profit, typically in commodities produced by non-capitalist production
2. Agrarian capitalism = activities of the British landwoning gentry from the 17th to the the 19th c. -> agricultural revolution -> production of crops for cash / the market
3. Industrial capitalism = classic form = maufacture by means of a factory system
4.Financial capitalism = subordination of production process to circulaton of money - 180From Freudal to Capitalist Market Economy- Domination of all social spheres by supply, demand, cash nexus -> development of middle-class culture
- 181The Agricultural Revolution:17th to 19th c.: Massive innovations in agriculture
-> Enclosures: re-conversion of pasture into arable land (-> Creates very large estates instead of single peasant farmers)
-> Mechanisation, crop rotation, selective breeding
Effects:
-Disappearance og commons (i.e. common land on which landless people could graze their cattle) -> Growing gap between rich landowners and landless peasants
-Fewer agricultural workers needed -> Drift towards the cities and the emerging industrial centres -> Industrial Revolution
-Greater and more stable production
-> Transformation of agriculture form subsistence farming to a capitalist industry - 182Preparing the Industrial Revolution-Textile production from cottage industry = small workshops with thousands of individual manufacturers (spinners, weavers, dyers) -> Innovation:
-> James Hargreaves's "Spinning Jenny" (1764)
-> Richard Arkwright's "Water frame" (1769) = cotton spinning machine
->Edmund Cartwright's power loom (1784)
-> To factory system = mass production of cheap and light cloth -> sold in Britain and around the Empire
James Watt's: Stationary Steam Engine (1765)
-> by 1800: 2,000 steam engines at work in Britain
Midlands = Metal Production
North-East = Coal mining -> coal as main fuel -> iron industry
Mid-18th c.: Improvement of infrastructure -> Transport
-Canals (by 1815: over 2,000miles)
-1780s: 'great road boom' after Turnpike Acts accompanied by technical innovation in road construction
Innovations in iron production:
-ex. "Coalbrookdale" in Shropshire owned by Darby family (= Quakers -> couldn't get officail position)
Coalbrookdale = centre of British iron industry in the 18th c.
+
Iron Bridge over the River Severn (1781) = the 1st major bridge in the world made out of cast iron (Gußeisen) - 183Preparing the Industrial Revolution (2)18th c. = accumulation of capital = precondition for the industrial Revolution
Banks and Banking
-> developed in England during the 17th c. through London goldsmiths -> (key date you need to know:) 1694: Bank of England (private Kapitalgesellschaft)
-by 1800: about 70 separate banks - 184Social order (1700 - 1800)Hierarchical class structure:
-Nobility: fewer than 200 families, owning 15-20% of landed wealth
-> Influence court and national politics
->manipulate selection of candidates to the lower house (back then the procedure was to just buy a person a seat in the house)
Gentry: 4000 families, owning 50% of the land in country
->local authority
->steady growth of power
-no friction -> they had similar political interests
-no democratic body, yet in the 18th and 18th c. very much unified
The 'Middling Sort':
-> great merchants and entrepreneurs
-> small traders, struggling craftsmen, ...
-> scholars, scientists, barristers, ...
->high-ranking officers in army and navy
Peasants
->75% of the population
->diversified class: status dependent on the amount of land leased
->nobles, Church and State exacted taxes, tithes and so on - 185Social Mobilityno legal or cultural barriers yet rare phenomenon
-> downward social mobility much more frequent
-end of century: ca. 30% dependent on some kind of poor relief
-Urban areas: increasing crime rate
-> 1688-1810: enactment of social control by the ruling classes increasing number of offenses punishable by death (over 220 offenses) - 186Aside: Public Punishments- Whippings, the stocks (Fußblock), the pillory (Pranger)
-Executions = very popular with the general public
->Functions: before newspapers and widespread literacy it showed inhabitants justice -> deterred from committing crimes
->Up to the end of the 18th c.: executions = A spectator sport for all classes (wealthy and poor)
-last public execution in London: 1868
-> Executions and publich punishments were a popular entertainment source (people would rent out window spots to watch the execution) - 187Politics: King George I (r. 1714-1727)-> 1714-1901: House of Hanover on the British throne
-Robert Walpole (need to know) (1676-1745)
Whig leader whoe effectively acter as prime minister under Geroge whose English was limited and had no interest in English politics - 188Politics: Whigs and Toriestwo dominant factions in politics = Interest groups
-Conservative Tories represent the land-owning gentry but also urban upper classes and bankers -> controlled the local government -> wanted to keep status quo
-Liberal Whigs stood for the entrepreneurial middle classes -> loyal monarchists since the monarchy was dependen on them -> interst in modernisation and progress through industry and trade -> controlled the state apparatus for a century
-arists, writers and philosophers on both sides - 189Politcs: National Building (Important!)1536: Union of England and Wales (remember)
-series of acts = annexation as part of Thomas Cromwell's policy of creating a national sovereign (Henry VIII vs. Rome)
1707: Act of Union with Scotland
-> Established Great Britain on 1 May 1707 (!!!)
-formal integration of English and Scottish parliaments after Scottish Parliament had not accepted the Hanoverian succession
-1603: Union of the Crowns: James VI of Scotland -> James I
-1800: Act of Union with Ireland
-> Established the United Kingdom on 1 January 1801 (!!!)
-early 1300s: Anglo-Norman conquest complete
- (...) (4 more points)
- (learn by heart:) 1690: Battle of the Boyne: King William III defeats James II (supported by French) -> still celebrated by the Ulster Unionists on 12 Jjuly
-1700s: massive land transferences: left the Catholics landless
-1798: Great Rebellion (United Irishmen) -> Aim: independence -> Failed - 190Politics: Jacobite Rebellions in Scotland-increasing Jacobite senitments = desire for Stuart restoration
-1715: first unsuccessful Jacobite rebellion
1745: Battle of Culloden
-> defeat of Jacobites under Prince Charles Edward Stuart
-> last land battle fought on British soil
-Subsequent destruction of Jacobitism - 191Economy and CultureMiddle-Class Culture
-middle-class culture on its way from an emergent to a dominant culture (R. WIlliams) -> Nation building
-Norms and Values: Culture of sensibility
->Central role of the meotions -> reform of manners
-> Functional masculinity of the commercial middle-classes = combination of calculating reason and 'moral sentiments' = empathy and pity as based on imagination = rational analysis -> benevolence and charity
- (Learn this by heart) Cultural emancipation of the middle-classes = speak for mankind (important!) as in Kant's definition of the Enlightment -> project their norms and liberties as universal, although they are historically and geographically specific = western / northern hemispheric bourgeois society (bürgerliche Gesellschaft)
middle-class = urban culture
middle-class cultural practices -> lead to democratisation of society - 192The Enlightenment-Begins with 17th c: Bacon, Hobbes, Locke
-Aim: to renew science and the arts based on empirical method
-Metaphor for the Enlightenment: (Picture by Francis Bacon slide 30 or 38)
-> Columns = Pillars of Hercules = promontories that flank the Strait of Gibralters = end of the Mediterranean as known world
-> Ship -> Discovery of new worlds = knowledge = useful for trade - 193The Enlightenment (2)Definition I:
-Creation of a new framework of ideas about nature, society and the human being's place in it
-Continuation of previous philosophical debates
-Accompanied by innovations in culture and technology
Definition II
-Communicating network of intellectuals subscribing to a characteristic cluster of ideas
-Intellecutal movement -> International community of philosophers -> 3 Generations
1.Montesquie, Voltaire influence by Locke and Newton
2. Rousseau, David Hume, ... : Critique of clerical institutions, combination of scientific method to form a coherent modern = bourgeois view of the world
3. Adam Smith and Adam Ferguson, Imannuel Kant, Mary Wollstonecraft: Poltical economy and sociology, epistemology, legal reform, women's rights and education -> later academic disciplines - 194The Enlightenment (3)Main Ideas:
-Emphasis on reason and rationality
-reason-> metaphor: 'light of reason' -> secular knowledge free of religious dogma
-> All knowledge is based upon empirical facts
-Scientific knowledge = key to expanding all human knowledge
-Scientific discoveries produce general laws which govern the entire universe
-The principal characteristics of human narture are everywhere the same -> toleration of cultural differences - 195The Enlightenment (4)Thesis Statement:
Theoretical categories:
-Class, gender and race
Function = reveal the central paradox of the Enlightenment
-> No extension of freedom and liberties to lower classes, women and slaves
-> Enlightenment = middle cass, male, white and practical = based on the needs of British industry and trade -> "the" individual = middle class, male ,white, in business or in the professions - 196Practical Enlightenment: Lunar Society of Birmingham- Dinner club for prominent figures in the Midlands Enlightenment, including industrialists, natural philosophers and intellecutals, who met regulary between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham
-1775: Lunar Society
The Coffe House:
->1 penny entrance fee
-> Served Coffee, tea, chocolate with sugar (only available through slave work)
-> An important meeting point - 197Literature, Art and MusicLiterary Culture: Non-Fiction
-Growth of literacy and emergent of print culture = chief vehicle for communicating ideas, Especially throguh "Periodicals"
1. Daniel Defoe's "Review" (1704-1713)
2. Richard Steele's "Tatler" (1709 -1711)
3. Joseph Addison's "Spectator" (1714)
- Most important literary innovation: the novel
->dominant genre of 18th c. -> WHY?
= most elaborate and sophisticated representation of the basic contradiction of the age = contradiction between individual and society = between individual dsire and social constraints
- - 198Samuel Jonhson (1709-1784)critic, scholar, writer
-"A Dictionary of the English Language" (1755) = his most substantial scholarly achievenemnt and still a milestone in English lexicography - 199Literary Culture: The Golden Age of Satire-> also called 'the Augustan Age' (1650-1750)
-basic assumption of satire: literature = public discourse -> aim: "Reformation" (Defoe) = moral reform
-audience = small circle who shared similar values
-aesthritcs of distortion, understatement, exaggeration - 200George Frideric Handel-Born in Halle and studied there -> went to London -> became a Baroque composer
-started three commercial opera companies as well to supply the English aristocracy with Italian opera -> success for almost 20 years
-Messiah: premiered in Dublin in 1742 in a charitable performance
-> Britain's best-loved and most famous choral work (The Foundling Hospital preformed each year until the 1770s + Hospital with the 1st orphanage in the world)
= Culture of Sensibility!
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