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8A/B/C
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- 1Self-concept (= self-identity = self-schema) = overall set of how one perceives / evaluates oneself; derived from self-esteem (less deep than self-worth) + self-efficacy Types of identity: personal (unique sense of self) // social (includes groups in community)Self-concept development: existential self (separate / distinct entity, constant) -> categorical self (having categorisable properties)
Rogers (humanistic) components of self-concept: self-image (view of ourselves) + self-esteem (value) + ideal self (vs real self, incongruity if do not match) - 2Self-esteem = respect / regard / evaluation for oneself; less specific than self-efficacy (belief in abilities to organise and execute action @ particular situation, important in approaching challenges / goals) Terror management theory = self-esteem protects from thoughts of deathStrong self-efficacy -- interest + commitment + recover quickly; weak self-efficacy -- avoid challenges + focus on failures + quickly lose confidence
Sources to determine strong vs weak self-efficacy: mastery + social modelling + social persuasion (positive words) + psychological responses - 3Self-awareness theory = focus attention on self via evaluating / comparing behaviour to internal standards / values Self-verification = seek out information consistent with self concept, want to be understood in terms of self-concept; self-reference effect = better remember information important to ourselvesReasons-generated attitude change: analyse reasons for attitudes by bringing reasons that don't reflect how one feels -> talk oneself into believing this is how oneself feels; the hard-to-explain feelings matter more
- 4Self-perception theory = when attitudes / feelings are ambiguous -> infer via observing own behaviour + situation; related to attribution theory Overjustification effect = view own behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons + underestimate extent caused by intrinsic reasonsProtecting intrinsic motivations from reward system: avoid overjustification effect (low interest less easily undermined) / type of rewards (performance-contingent, vs task-contingent)
- 5Social identity theory = groups as important source of self-concept (enhance status of group to increase self-image) Mental process of social identity (categorisation + relationship between personal x social identities): categorise -> identification -> social comparisonIdentification: group membership + similarity (outgroup usually treated as similar within themselves \ completely distinct to ingroup, ingroup usually as made up of distinct individuals)
Groups may work harder when competing against inferior group than superior group - 6Social comparison theory = learn about own abilities / attitudes by comparing to other people (upward / downward) Social tuning = adopt another person's attitudes Affective forecasts - may require consulting other people.
- 7Theories of development: Freud's psychosexual (early childhood most important) / Erikson's psychosocial (development through lifespan) / Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive (active learning hands-on + sociocultural interaction for higher functions) / Kolhberg's moral theories.
- 8Freud's psychosexual concept: tension buildup @ psychosexual stages could cause conflicts; first 5 years crucial for development of personality Libido = natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind; centered around different parts of body @ developmentFixation of libidinal energy: oral (<1yo, development of rooting / sucking reflex, trust and comfort) -> anal (1-3yo, toilet training helps in control / independence) -> phallic (3-6yo, resolution through identification with same-sex parent) -> latent (period of exploration, unfocused libido) -> genital (focus on others)
- 9Erikson vs Freud: based on culture and society, plenty of room for growth throughout life Crisis = conflict between individual needs vs needs of society Virtues - character strengths that can be used by ego to resolve future conflictsVirtues: hope (<2yo, trust vs mistrust) -> will (2-3yo, autonomy vs shame / doubt) -> purpose (3-5yo, initiative vs guilt) -> competence (industry vs inferiority) -> fidelity (identity vs role confusion) -> love (intimacy vs isolation) -> care (generativity vs stagnation) -> wisdom (ego integrity vs despair)
- 10Vygotsky's focus: social interaction -> cognition Elementary functions - attention / sensation / perception / memory; require cooperative and collaborative dialogue from more knowledgeable other -> higher mental function (cognition)Zone of proximal development = in between not being able to do /x/ being able to do something; guidance @ ZPD allows transition from set of skills already had to more expanded set
Language - main means for intellectual adaptation via internal / private speech - 11Kohlberg's levels: pre-conventional (no personal code, authority outside individual, obedience vs punishment -> individualism and exchange) -> conventional (authority internalised not questioned, interpersonal concordance -> maintaining order) -> post-conventional (individual rights and justice).
- 12Gender roles = expected behaviours / attitudes / traits for males vs females; factor in cultural attitudes Gender typing = acquisition of traditional masculine vs feminine role Androgyny = blend of male + female rolesBiological correlates of sexual orientation: hypothalamus / genetics (males usually inherit from mothers) / prenatal hormonal exposure
Evolutionary perspective of sexuality: social learning as more plausible theory vs genetic determinism? Adaptability more crucial in natural selection? - 13Social influence = influence of people / social groups on individual thoughts / actions / feelings Type of social influence: imitation (need to understand difference between others and self? Built-in capacity?) / roles (adopt norms) / reference groups (helps in self-evaluation) / culture.
- 14Mead's view: only some people @ only some periods can influence one's identity; influences change across lifespan Actual self = balance between I x me Social behaviourism = mind and self emerge through language / symbols -- beginning of symbolic interactionismMead's stages of self-development: preparatory (via imitation, no perspective taking) -> play (more aware of social relationships, reflected in spontaneous tendency to pretend play / role-taking) -> game (understand rules + also beliefs of general other, concept of multiple roles, care about significant others)
- 15Socialisation: needs of society -> needs of individual; people learn to be functional members of society Functionalist perspective: fundamental task of society to reproduce itself (create members who correspond to expectations the society deems appropriate / desirable).
- 16Socialisation learning = learning attitudes / behaviours / values expected by culture / community via observation / interaction Cooley's view: everyone has something to teach; socialisation shapes self-image + self-concept via looking-glass self (internalises reactions of others, always changing until interactions cease)Steps of looking-glass self: imagine appearance towards others -> others evaluations based on observations -> perception of others evaluations / observations (vs actual opinions of others) -> revise how we think about ourselves (further re-evaluated based on future interactions)
- 17Stereotype - cognitive; prejudice - attitude (may have implicit bias); discrimination - behavioural Fundamental attribution theory - explain behaviour with dispositional vs situational factors Kelley's covariation model cues: consistency / distinctiveness / consensusGroupings of prejudice / discrimination: race (physical characteristics take on social significance / meaning) / ethnicity (national origin / distinct cultural practices) / power (lack thereof in minority groups) / social class (always relative, just world phenomenon explains discrimination) / prestige jobs
- 18Cognitive bias = tendency to think in certain ways, deviating from standard of rationality Actor-observer bias = ego-preservation for own behaviour + fundamental attribution error for others' behaviours Naive realism = believe they perceive things accuratelyFundamental attribution error more often in individualistic societies (success over-attributed to internal factors)
Self-serving bias - attribute success to internal factors \ failure to external factors; more in individualistic societies
Optimism bias = perceive oneself lesser risk at experiencing negative event - 19Stereotype = attributing / overgeneralising a certain thought to a group of individuals; allows rapid assessment \ often inaccurate Stereotype threat: exposure to negative stereotype for a task -> self-fulfilling fear -> performance affected -> original stereotypes affirmed?Illusory correlation = group of people xx characteristic based on unique cases
Attributional biases = sick / disadvantaged face prejudice because others believe they have done something wrong
Prejudiced thinking only inhibited via active self-monitoring - 20Causes of prejudice: personality (particular types of personality more prone to prejudice) / frustration->aggression (emotionally-based, directed to scapegoats) / relative deprivation (discrepancy between what they feel entitled to vs actually get) / cognitive shortcuts / victim blamingCharacteristics of authoritarian personality: obedient to superiors \ little sympathy for inferiors, oppressive towards subordinate groups, rigid with viewpoints, often sprouts from harsh upbringing, use prejudice for protecting ego (avoid confronting themselves, focused on others)
- 21Reducing prejudice: contact hypothesis (interdependence + common goal + equal status + opportunity for informal contact + opportunity to interact with multiple out-group members + social norms of equality) / jigsaw classroom (must cooperate to learn a lesson) / active self-inhibition.
- 22Discrimination (individual / institutional) = differential treatment + harmful actions against minority Unintentional (structural) discrimination = systems / policies not taking into account needs of group Quiet discrimination - usually expressed as suspicion / avoidanceSide-effect discrimination = practices in one institutional area linked to practices in another area -> negative impact
Past-in-present discrimination = discrimination from past still affecting people @ present even if discrimination no longer legal - 23Stigma = extreme disapproval of person based on behaviour / quality (permanent spoiling of identity), typically overt physical deformations / deviant traits / deviation from accepted norms Self-stigma: feel rejected -> avoid -> deny -> affect self-esteem + mental health problems etcSocial stigma x components may vary by sociopolitical context
Bidirectional relationship between self x family x society x media: family may be shunned by society / family may shun individual / denied access to employment / media depicts stereotypes (major source) - 24Primacy bias = selection made based on information presented earlier (vs recency bias); related to first impressions (long-lasting, strong, easily built upon via reinforcement) Variable duration = time between primacy and recency; information may be remembered better if unusualHalo effect = tendency for overall positive impression to influence opinion in another area (vs devil effect); eg physical attractiveness stereotype for positive personality traits
Techniques to maintain JWH: rational (accept reality / correct injustice) / irrational (denial / reinterpretation) - 25Ethnography = study of people and places; via multiple research methods Ethnocentrism = evaluating other cultures according to own culture / viewing own as superior; cultural relativism = evaluating according to theirs; xenocentrism = viewing theirs as superiorIn-group vs out-group: stronger interactions, more common and more influential, psychological connection (politics / culture / spirituality)
In-group favouritism = friendly to people @ own group \ neutral to out-group (less extreme than out-group derogation); occurs even if assigned arbitrarily - 26Geographical proximity (closeness) - most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships Mere exposure effect (part of propinquity effect) = repeated exposure to novel people increases liking; exception when burnout occurs.
- 27Traits considered universally attractive (across cultural backgrounds): body attraction (high dimorphism / youthfulness / skin smoothness / body symmetry) / facial attraction (face averageness vs unique traits, more important than body attraction) / physical background / unrelated arousalHomophily (similarity bias) = tendency to form relationships with people similar @ any level
Perceived similarity - may be due to convergence of interests over time
Projection bias = assume others think like us; false consensus bias = assume others think like us + agree with us - 28Passionate love = aroused state of intense positive absorption (can be explained by two-factor theory of arousal + appraisal), usually @ beginning of romantic relationship Companionate love = deep affectionate attachment; testosterone / DA / E subsidesFactors important for gratifying / enduring relationship: equity (receive in proportion to what they gave) + self-disclosure + positive support (significantly outnumber negative interactions) + comparison of expected rewards vs costs + comparison of alternatives + evaluation of investment
- 29Harlow monkey experiments: baby monkeys prefer cloth mother even when need to eat -- mother x child attachment based on contact comfort not food Ainsworth's stranger situation: mother + child + stranger in a room -> mother leaves -> return --> secure vs insecure attachment differencesParenting style in secure vs insecure attachment: sensitivity, responsiveness; can affect relationships intimacy / attachment to own children in later life
Types of parenting styles: permissive (few expectations, lenient) / authoritative (strict, pragmatic, loving) / authoritarian (breaking child's will) - 30Aggression (instrumental / hostile) = intentional behaviour to harm / destroy Weapon effect = aggression increased by mere presence of weapon Biological factors of aggression: genes (eg MAO-A deficiency) / brain circuits (amygdala triggers fear response, frontal lobe impaired) / testosteronePsychosocial factors of aggression: frustration->aggression principle / reinforcement modelling (eg if parents give in to child's tantrums) / observational learning / deindividuation / behavioural scripts (eg from media violence, taken @ new situations) / cultural influence (eg honour)
- 31Altruism = unselfish concern for welfare of others; also beneficial for oneself (most cases due to ulterior motive) Types of altruistic behaviour = kin selection / reciprocal altruism / cost signalling (signal that oneself have more resources and open to cooperation)Alternative theories for altruistic behaviour: empathy->altruism hypothesis (some people develop altruism from empathy) / part of innate behaviour @ early development (some newborns cry when seeing other newborns cry, 2yo play-act helping behaviours, 4yo begin actual)
- 32Decision-making process for bystander intervention: notice incident -> interpret as emergency -> assume responsibility -> attempt to help Social exchange theory = social behaviour based on cost vs benefits Helping norms: reciprocity / social responsibility (to those needing help).
- 33Types of social support: emotional (may include physical support) / esteem / informational / instrumental / companionship (social belonging through engaging in activity).
- 34Social conflict = perceived incompatibility of actions / goals / ideas Social trap = conflicting parties caught in mutually destructive behaviour by pursuing self-interests Mirror-image perceptions = each side sees itself as ethical / peaceful \ other side as evil / aggressiveWays to promote peace: positive contact (especially non-competitive contact) / correcting mirror-image perceptions / cooperation (achieving superordinate goals only possible via cooperation) / communication (facilitated by mediator when conflicts get less intense) / conciliation
- 35Social interaction = >2 individuals purposefully relating to each other, goal-directed + @ social context Primary group - for expressive functions; secondary group - instrumental, impersonal, more short-term Communication: ~55% body language, ~38% tone, ~7% verbal messagesNon-verbal communication: facial expressions / eye contact / body postures / gestures / touch / walk / symbols / personal space; learned through socialisation, culture-specific
Categories of social space: intimate (also appropriate for children) -<< personal -<< social (impersonal) -<< public - 36Social construction of reality = individuals / groups shaping reality via social interactions; part of symbolic interaction theory Rational choice theory = consider rewards vs costs for individual; reciprocity (direct / indirect) as key concept.
- 37Social status = position in society; may have many statuses at once (status set) Ascribed status = assigned from birth (vs achieved status) Master status = status of greatest important to person's life; may not be the one preferred by individualRoles = actions (expectations) performed in one's status
Role strain = inability to carry out all necessary obligations within 1 status; role conflict = tensions between roles of >2 different statuses
Role exit = stops engaging in previously central role + establish new identity - 38Impression management = attempt to manage own images by influencing others' perceptions; can be conscious / unconscious Assertive strategies - received as talking oneself up to demonstrate desired image; defensive strategies - eg avoidance / self-handicapping.
- 39Goffman's concept of dramaturgy = people plan their conduct + want to control how they are seen to put forth best presentation of themselves; self as dramatic effect emerging from immediate scene (dependent on time / place / audience), identities not necessarily stableParts of dramaturgy: front stage (act @ social setting, attempt at impression management via different social scripts) // back stage (only 1, may be used for working on impression management)
Goffman's view on impression management: motivation in everyday life to sell particular image to others - 40Identity work processes: define identity + establish symbols + opportunities to affirm membership + police boundaries Emotion work strategies: bodily / cognitive / discursive (language) Feeling rules = cultural scripts with clues to how one should feel + how much + how to display.
- 41Social networks = web of social relationships including direct link + indirect link Social network theory - strength in weak ties for sharing new resources to vast network, eg more likely to find jobs via acquaintance vs close friend.
- 42Organisations = designed for specific purpose / collective goal, try to achieve maximum efficiency Types of organisations: utilitarian (rewarded for efforts) / normative (shared morally-relevant goals, positive sense of unity, purpose) / coercive (highly structured, strict rules).
- 43Bureaucracy = rules / structures / rankings guiding very large formal organisations; emphasis on efficiency Iron rule of oligarchy: even the most democratic can become more bureaucratic over time; may be due to conflict theory / those who achieve power become leadersWeber's characteristics of ideal bureaucracy: division of labour (\ can cause alienation / trained incapacity) / hierarchy (\ diminished responsibility) / written rules (\ can cause goal displacement) / impersonality (\ can discourage loyalty) / hired based on qualifications (\ Peter principle?)
- 44Rationalisation = tasks broken down to component parts for efficiency McDonaldisation: rationalisation of fast food with policies dominating other organisations, with principles of efficiency + calculability + predictability + uniformity + control (eg automation), \ may lose sight of overall target.
- 45Foraging = search for food @ animal's environment; includes stalking prey Foraging behaviour driven strongly by genetics + also learned; associated with cost-benefit analysis Group vs solitary foraging: can take down larger prey for everyone's benefit \ can lead to competition for scarce food.
- 46Dyads - more intimate / intense (no outside competition) \ require active cooperation; triads can be more stable (one person can mediate tension) \ less stable (two people unite -> conflict) Aggregate = same space \ no common identity / interactions; category = similar characteristics \ may not be tied together.
- 47Animal communication methods: language / non-verbal cues / visual cues Communication targets: autocommunication (eg echolocation) / conspecifics / heterospecific Communication functions: mating / territory / dominance / information of food location / alarm callsTypes of animal communication: sound (not always by mouth, can reach many members at once \ can expose location) / chemical signals (slower \ long-lasting) / somatosensory (includes seismic / electro communication) / visual cues (eg mimicry / bioluminescent / gaze-following) / movement (eg dance)
- 48Mating behaviour = mating + other acts associated Mating strategies: random (no specific limitations) / assortative (considered best, helps in inclusive fitness) / disassortative (members with different traits more likely to marry, eg based on differences in MHC)Game theory - decisions one makes affect oneself / also other players
Relating evolution x game theory: consider reproduction + environment
Evolutionary game theory: life as game, players concerned with availability of resources + social behaviour (no conscious intention), tests strategies
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- None Part 6-10 Fichas sobre 8A/B/C, creado por Andrew Susilo el 13/12/2021.
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