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PSY / A2 / UNIT 3 / RELATIONSHIPS
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- 1PSYCHOLOGY A2 UNIT 3RELATIONSHIPS:
- 2FORMATIONBYRNE & CLORE (1970)
REWARD NEED SATISFACTION (RNS)
. Based on classical and operant conditioning, of being attracted to others for what they offer.
. Classical = pleasure - we learn positive associations & repeat the behaviour to achieve again
Operant = Rewards - we repeat the behaviour that achieves achieve outcomes
. The rewards satisfy out unmet needs and mutual attraction occurs when each met each others needs
. We are driven to seek the rewarding stimuli and avoid the punishing stimuli
BYRNE, CLORE AND SMEATON
SIMILARITY THEORY
Two stages to forming a relationship:
1. Dissimilarity - exclude people with different attitudes and personalities
2. Similar - chose from the remaining
Attitude Alignment - Partners modify to become more similar - 3A02:) Research Support
. May & Hamilton - Rate male attractiveness with Rock (happy), None (neutral) or Avant-Grande (uphappy) music. Found rock = better rating
= ^ External Reliability
:) Practical Application
. Relationship Counsellors use RNS to refocus on the positive associations
= ^ External Validity
:( Methodological Criticism
. Lab studies -> demand characteristics & artificial tasks
= ↓ external validity
:( Ethnocentric
Although cultures have different rewards and needs, the western methods and findings are applied
= ↓ external validity
:( Reductionism
. The theory suggests we are self-centred and only form relationships based on pleasure
= ↓ external validity
:( Over-simplistic
. The theory explains complex behaviours by reducing them into rewards and associations
= ↓ external validity & reductionism - 4MAINTENANCETHIBAUT AND KELLEY
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
. An economic theory, placing human behaviours into a business like structure
. A method of weighing up if the current or potential relationships will be more successful
^ profit / ↓ costs
until profit out-weights costs
COMPARISON LEVEL
Weighs up potential increase in rewards against the costs of the current relationships
WALSTER
EQUITY THEORY
Equity is subjective and strive to achieve in a relationship as inequity are seen as unfair and to cause distress.
However, can work is unbalanced - 5A02:) Research Support
. Rusbult - Heterosexual uni students, 7 months, questionnaires every few weeks
Found - Satisfaction and investments predicted the commitment and future of relationship
= ^ external reliability
:) Practical Application
. Explains domestic violence, Rusbult - investment model (if ^ investment = ↓ breakdown)
= ^ external validity
:) Universal Application
. Yelsma - 28 Indian arranged couples vs 38 american, found arranged = ^ happier because of economic alliance
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
. Questionnaires/Interviews = subject to social desirability because want relationship to look good
= ↓ internal validity
- However, also in naturalistic environments = :)
:( Reductionistic
Doesn't apply to all relationships
Clark & Mills = communal and exchange
= SET only exchange
= ↓ external validity - 6BREAKDOWNDUCK
MODEL OF RELATIONSHIP DISSOLUTION
Three categories of relationship dissolution
. Pre-existing = predestined incompatibility
. Mechanical Failure = can't live together
. Sudden Death = Betrayal / infidelity
PROCESS OF BREAKDOWN;
1. Intrapsychic - One/both experience dissatisfaction
2. Dyadic - express dissatisfaction
3. Social - socially expressed, external help
4. Grave-dressing - Place blame on each other
Research Support:
LEE
112 romantic relationships
1. Dissatisfaction
2. Exposure
3. Negotiation - discussion
4. Resolution - attempt to repair
5. Termination - end
(not all go through all five) - 7AO2:) Research Support
. LEE = similar
= ^ external reliability
:) Practical Application
. Duck's model can explain feelings of couples and allow a healthy breakdown or resolution
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
. Subject to social desirability, manipulation of answers to look good
= ↓ internal validity
:( Methodological Criticism
Retrospective data, reply on recall of past events and emotions.
= questionable validity
:( Ethnocentric
Collectivistic cultures e.g. Indian = 1% divorce rate
= ↓ external validity
:( Individual Differences
Relationships do not follow the same pattern and cannot be generalised to one type
Clark = two types
= ↓ external validity - 8SEXUAL SELECTION THEORYDARWIN
Sexual Selection = a type of natural selection that involves outperforming rivals and successful conception. Allowing characteristics to pass through genes
Inter-sexual selection (females)
Having preferences of the opposite sex leads to an increase of that characteristic
E.g. Humans became taller and stronger
Dimorphism = males 12-15% taller than females
Intra-sexual selection (males)
Competing in order to have prime access to the opposite sex. Which then passes on the gene that helped them win
Short-Term (Males)
Research shows that males prefer sex earlier on in the relationship and casual sex. Because they can pass on multiple genes instead of females which is one per. 9 months-1 year
Buss = why males have lower standards and become disinterested after sex
Long-term (both)
Both sexes heavily invest into their offspring, careful choosing the correct partner to pass on the genes with.
E.g. why males value fertility and youth and females valuing material wealth - 9AO2:) Supporting Research
Waynford and Dunbar - Lonely heart ads
479 males, 402 females.
Males: 1.7x ^ expression of material wealth
2x ^ likely to express physical attractiveness
Females: 4.5x ^ demand of wealth, even more in fertile years, 20-39
= ^ external validity
:) Practical Application
Allows dating sites to use the information to suggest information for the clients to use in order to have a successful service
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
Although quick and easy to evaluate information from, the dating websites do not indicate a full understanding of what the opposite sex is looking for.
= ↓ external validity
:( Ethnocentric
Stone - 36 cultures, 10,000 Pp
↓ socio-economic develop = ^ healthy characteristics
^ developed = ^ mutual attraction
= ↓ external validity
:( Outdated
Strassberg & Holty - 'Female seeking male', 50% more interest if "independent, successful, ambitious" than "slim, attractive"
= needs more research due to economic development and cultural changes
:( Reductionism
no indication of non-heterosexual - 10PARENTAL INVESTMENTTRIVERS
How parents invest into their offspring
Females = already invest more with pre-pregnancy, pregnancy and post pregnancy. With no female model, the child's survival rate dramatically drops
Therefore, females tend to be choosier when selecting their mates.
Daly & Wilson: Men can opt out in ways a female cannot
Symons: Only sperm and copulation needed
In consequence, this lead to the ^ of extramarital affairs
Bakes & Bellis: 14% of popular from ext. marital affairs because women want resources from a faithful partner but also physical genes (men are seen to just want sex)
Paternal:
Therefore, males have a need to protect themselves from cuckoldry. As they heavily invest into their offspring but want it to be their genetics.
Miller: Men have a ^ concern of infidelity because women are certain the offspring is theirs
(Sexual Jealousy)
Emotional Jealousy:
Females having a fear of their resources being diverted into another offspring - 11AO2:) Research Support:
BUSS: Gave US students a scenario of sexual or emotional jealousy and measured the psychological response of females and males (distress)
Males = sexual, Females = Emotional
= External Reliability
:) Practical Application
Governments & Health care give single women more support if they lack the resources from another.
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
Based on questionnaires/interviews which are subject to social desirability
= Questioned validity
:( Ethnocentric
Tapp = Na Tribe, raised by uncles and no support from real fathers no western method wouldn't apply
= ↓ external validity
:( Reductionism
The theory is outdated as there is no implications of societal changes, such as the nuclear family no longer being dominant (e.g. adoption, single families)
:( Falsifiable
The theory biologically cannot be tested as men's behaviour cannot be measure as they cannot become pregnant
Popper: Need to test
= hard to draw valid conclusions - 12INFLUENCE OF CHILDHOOD ATTACHMENTSEarly childhood experiences are seen to shape our adult relationships
Bowlby: "Internal working model" that was developed in childhood to determine future relationships
Two attachment styles:
1. Self-esteem = attitudes towards ourselves
2. interpersonal-trust = attitudes of others
AINSWORTH:
Secure (B) = trusting -> trust and long-lasting relationships
Avoidant (A) = distant, no intimacy -> difficult to trust and no intimacy
Resistant (C) = PCG is inconsistent -> worry partners will reject
Disorganised (D) = Confused, A and C -> chaotic, not trusting, abusive
Waters = retest 20 years later (first 12 months) and 72% adults given same attachment style
- Proving it is an internal working model - 13AO2:) Research Support
Hazan & Shaver = 600 questionnaires, US newspaper about love styles
(Aim to see if attachment and love styles were the same)
Findings = 56% secure, 24% avoidant, 20% resistant - all these attachment styles differed in love styles
= ^ external reliability
:) Practical Application
Paternity rights to influence the development of secure attachments as research highlighted secure as the healthiest
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
Questionnaires = easy to analyse but subject to social desirability and rely on retrospective events
= Questionable validity
:( Cultural Bias
The strange situation is criticised of cultural bias amongst sub-cultures. E.g. not taking parental differences into account - religion
= ↓ external validity
:( Reductionism
The theory ignores implications of life events.
Lewis = divorce plays a major role on children's attachments, no matter the attachment style
= ↓ internal validity
:( Cannot test
The theory cannot be tested within controlled environments because it breaks protection from h - 14CULTURAL DIFFERENCESDifferences in beliefs about mate selection e.g. collectivistic = influenced by other's opinions
Moghaddam:
Western = temporary and voluntary
Non-western = permanent and involuntary
Physical Attractiveness:
Responsible for formation, seen as more important in western
Cunningham = large neonate eyes, symmetry, small nose and groomed hair is attractive in all cultures
Stone = 36 cultures, 10,000 Pp
↓ developed = attracted to characteristics which indicate health
^ developed = mutual attraction
Divorce:
Universal concept, seen more in western
why: society influence, e.g. indians are influenced to not value divorce where as not as valued in Western and female independency is not an option in non-western
India = 1% / USA = 50% - 15AO2:) Supporting Research
Yelsma - 28 indian arranged vs 38 usa
Findings: Arranged = happier
90% of indian couples = arranged
- why divorce is so low
= ^ external reliability
:) Practical Application
Knowledge to relationship counsellors on how to approach advice for different cultures
= ^ external validity
:( Methodological Criticism
Questionnaires and interviews = subject to social desirability and depend on retrospective data
= questionable validity
:( Cultural Bias
Techniques used to measure were designed and tested in America
Lonner "american are norm to psychological testing"
= ↓ internal validity
:( Reductionism
Doesn't take into account sub-cultures. E.g the Amish are apart of the American culture, which do not believe in Divorce yet are not in the analysis
= ↓ external validity
:) Globalisation
However, the research does show the current changes within society. Such as the influence of media consumerism on people and how that effects relationships due to more exposure
= ^ external validity