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Spring workshop material
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- 1Define 'Syntax'How words are combined, and the relationships between parts of a sentence
- 2Define 'Lexicon'The 'mental dictionary' that stores a word's form, meaning, and grammatical information
- 3What can grammatical information include?-The syntactic category (verb, noun)
- The relationship to other words
- agreement information - 4What is the difference between a 'lexical' or 'functional' syntactic category?Lexical= has meaning or content
Functional= has minimal meaning; more related to structure (prepositions, determiners, complementisers) - 5NOUNSMost can follow articles; can follow a preposition; can be modified with an adjective
- 6VERBScan follow modals (should, could); can change tense
- 7ADJECTIVEScan appear between articles and a noun; can appear after 'noun is/was'
- 8ADVERBSoften end in 'ly'; can be used to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, sentences; cannot be used to modify a noun
- 9Why syntax?It allows us to describe the structure of a sentence, not just the order of words ... can understand what makes a sentence ambiguous
Can see how language is stored and processed, analyse literary works, write more clearly/ purposefully - 10Define 'compositional'Syntax is this: built up from smaller constituents e.g. words combined to make phrases
This process is governed by various 'rules' - 11Syntactic RulesThese are descriptive, and something people know instinctively ... also change over time
- 12Noun PhraseNP= (D) (A) N
- 13What is the 'core' of a phrase?The Head
- 14Verb PhraseVP= V (NP) (PP)
- 15SentenceSentence= NP VP
- 16Preposition PhrasePP= P NP
- 17What can be used to represent the structure of a sentence?A tree diagram
(words combine into phrases; phrases combine into sentences) - 18Name the parts of a tree diagramconnections= branches
ends of branches= nodes
(all constituents linked up to the NP node) - 19What does the fact we have descriptive rules demonstrate?That there is predictability in language (couldn't create descriptive rules if there are endless options)
- 20Despite limited words and structures, how can we still produce new sentences and phrases?Recursion
- 21What is a recursive device?something that allows a grammatical process to be used multiple times
... enables sentences to be endlessly long - 22Define 'multiple adjunction'inserting adjectives or adverbs repeatedly into a phrase structure
- 23Define 'embedding' (recursion)placing a sentence into a bigger sentence (usually through 'that' or relative pronouns)
- 24Define 'coordination' (recursion)When two units of the same type are connected together (sentences, phrases, syntactic categories)
- 25Does anything limit recursion?Theoretically no, but socially: time, memory, style
- 26What are non-finite clauses?Another way of embedding-- include: the infinitive, the present participle, the past participle
- 27Define 'simple sentences'sentences with no sentence-level recursion
- 28Define 'compound sentences'sentences that have sentence level coordination
- 29Define 'complex sentences'Sentences which have embedding
- 30What is structural ambiguity in a sentence?Sentence with several possible meanings/ interpretations
- 31Give examples of grammatical variationsAcross languages (e.g. change in sentence order)
Across time (e.g. change in word meaning)
Academic language (e.g. vocab specific to an academic area/ community)
Spoken language (e.g. colloquial, mistakes) - 32Define 'ellipsis'Involves leaving out some element from a sentence (e.g. word or phrase)
This does not usually cause difficulty in understanding due to understanding of context - 33Give some examples of non-standard forms of syntaxtext messaging, plays, adverts, poetry
- 34Define 'semantics'The literal, descriptive meaning of language
How word meanings and syntactic relationships generate semantic meaning - 35Define 'pragmatics'How context and intention impact meaning
- 36Define 'synonymy' (semantic concept)words, phrases that have the same semantic meaning
- 37Define 'antonyms' (semantic concept)Words that have exactly opposite meanings
This is more complex due to issues of scale and vagueness - 38Define 'hyponym' (semantic concept)Word more specific than related word
- 39Define 'hypernym' (semantic concept)Word less specific than related word
- 40Define 'ambiguous' (semantic concept)words, phrases, sentences that have more than one meaning
Related to Polysemy... multiple but related meanings - 41Define 'entailment' (semantic concept)When one sentence being true means that another sentence must also be true (one entails the other)
- 42Define 'tautology' (semantic concept)saying something twice, usually in different words
- 43Define 'contradiction' (semantic concept)if two sentences can't be true at the same time ... a sentence cannot be true
- 44What is a way of categorising words?Thematic roles
(categorising and labelling words according to the type of meaning they convey)
They are independent of other categories such as subject - 45Define thematic rolesSomething which indicates the role a thing plays in a sentence.
They relate to the overall meaning of a sentence, as well as the way syntax influences our interpretation of the meaning - 46Define an 'Agent'the person or thing that does an action
- 47Define a 'patient'the undergoer or receiver of an action
- 48Define a 'theme'something that is moved during an action
- 49What type of syntactic category requires certain thematic roles to be present?A verb
e.g. NPs can fill these roles - 50Why are thematic roles useful?They are useful when analysing:
- issues of acceptability
-discourse factors
- how meaning and relations are conceptualised, understood, decoded - 51Define 'scale' (scale and vagueness)Adjectives of scale refer to a set of ordered values
e.g. age, height, price, volume
Some scales are closed so have a set limit
Others are open so have no limit - 52Define 'vague' (Scale and vagueness)A vague adjective has a single broad meaning
This means it can be slightly different in each context
E.g. the word 'tall' is vague when no specific value or unit is given - 53Define 'Common ground'The knowledge the speakers share
(aspect of communication) - 54How can common ground be established?-General word knowledge
-shared past experience
-discourse information - 55How can common ground varye.g. how well you know the person, how long for, shared location, shared culture, age, interests
- 56How can someone judge the amount of common ground they share with someone?-knowledge or assumptions about the other person's knowledge
-knowing about a person's experiences
-knowledge of the preceding discourse
-feedback signals
(these cause us to phrase things differently) - 57What will mistakes in assumptions about common knowledge cause?Misunderstandings (or lack of understanding)
This is increased in a group (different levels of common ground) - 58Define 'discourse'something which considers a series of sentences or utterances and how they relate to each other
This can differ according to factors such as the purpose of the discourse - 59What is the mode of discourse?whether it is written or spoken
- 60Compare fluency between spoken and written discourse (mode)Spoken: errors, corrections, pauses, repetitions
Written: more time to plan, so less of these - 61Compare formality between spoken and written discourse (mode)Spoken: less formal... colloquial vocabulary e.g. contractions and less formal words
Written: more obscure and precise words used - 62Compare interaction between spoken and written discourse (mode)Spoken: greater opportunity for feedback and for speakers to co-contribute to the discourse ... turn-taking
Written: usually a single speaker who needs to make assumptions about the responses of the audience (common ground) - 63List the features of spoken discourse-Turn-taking
-Back-channelling (words like 'yeah' which show attention without an attempt to take a conversational turn)
-Use of adjacency pairs (exchanges with two utterances; the first prompting the second e.g. question-answer) - 64List the features of written discourse-The additional time available
-This allows for integration (organising information into larger more complex chunks) - 65List features EXCLUSIVE to speech-Various aspects of prosody
e.g. stress, loudness, intonation
-Non-verbal communication features
e.g. gestures and facial expressions - 66List features EXCLUSIVE to writing-Punctuation (used to indicate aspects of syntax or avoid ambiguities... and to indicate stress or focus)
-The altering of font and formatting - 67What are the 2 different ways we cancan represent what someone has said?Direct Speech: reporting exactly the words said
Indirect Speech: summarising or paraphrasing what was said
(each has specific functions or stylistic effects that will be suitable for certain situations) - 68Why is indirect speech controversial?It makes it difficult to recover the exact words of the original utterance (intentionally or not)
Get further away from the truth - 69How are direct and indirect speech presented?Direct speech uses quotation marks
Indirect speech is usually introduced via some additional device e.g. 'that' clauses or 'to' infinitives - 70How do direct and indirect speech differ in morphological and structural ways?Usually a change in tense
Often a change in word order
Different forms of deictic language
(person/pronouns, place, time) - 71How are direct and indirect speech listed?The Cline of Speech Presentation
(relates to the narratorial interference/ mediation) - 72Define 'free direct speech'When a character apparently speaks (e.g. internally) with no quotation marks-- the narrator is not a mediator
- 73Explain the 'narrator's report of speech act'when the narrator describes the type of conversation, but does not give a full sense of what was said or the exact words.
The narrator appears to be in total control of the report. - 74How can you capture more details of what's been said, or analyse precise aspects of speech?Write a transcription
- 75What did Grice propose when thinking about successful communication? (Gricean Maxims)The Cooperative Principle
(when speakers want to be cooperative when they communicate... they shape their utterances to do this) - 76How many maxims are there?4
- 77List the Gricean MaximsQuality: telling the truth
Quantity: saying the exact amount of info needed
Relation: being relevant
Manner: avoiding obscurity and being brief - 78What is it called when maxims/ expected norms are not followed?Implicatures
(it creates indirect meanings) - 79List how maxims can be 'broken''Opting out': speaker is aware of maxim but are prevented from observing it
'Violating': when someone does not observe a maxim, often to mislead
'Clash': to fulfil one maxim, another must be broken
'Flouting': clearly and obviously breaking to create indirect meaning/ implicatures - 80Give examples of 'flouting maxims'Quality: saying something blatantly untrue
Quantity: more or less info given than required
Relation: being obviously irrelevant
Manner: being convoluted or needlessly brief - 81What does discourse look at?The coherence between elements (how sentences flow together and crete meanings beyond just themselves)
- 82What do you need to become a 'fully functioning' speaker of language?Communicative competence
(being able to appropriately combine sentences into a coherent discourse, as well as using language appropriate to context) - 83What is an example of how language can be influenced by context?deictic language
(deictic terms encode aspects of context) - 84Give example of Person, Space, and Time (deictic expressions)Person- pronouns
Space- demonstrative pronouns and some verbs
Time- adverbs and names of time units - 85Define 'social deixis'reflects social attributes or the social hierarchy between speakers
(e.g. informal and formal ways of saying 'you') - 86What is a 'speech act'?an utterance that performs some function in communication
e.g. apologies, greetings, invitations - 87What makes an utterance constative?-it simply describes or states something
-it is true or false - 88what makes an utterance performative-it performs a certain act
-it is neither true nor false - 89Define a 'locutionary act' (speech act)the actual act of saying something; its surface meaning
(declarative, imperative, interrogative) - 90Define an 'illocutionary act' (speech act)what the speaker aims to communicate; the social force of an utterance
- 91Define a 'perlocutionary act' (speech act)the actual effect of an utterance; its outcome (intended or not)
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- Fichas sobre Spring workshop material , creado por Doobs C el 12/05/2018.
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