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- 1ENCODINGLevels of processing (Craik and Lockhart 1972)
Depth of processing at encoding strengthens retrieval
Relational and item specific processing
Mandler's (1980) Dual Process Model of Recognition - 2MEMORY STORES AND SYSTEMSStore: holds non active representations
System: holds stores and processes e.g. those involved in activating representations
Episodic: personal experiences
Semantic: general knowledge
Problematic distinction: communication between them
Amnesiacs: Gabrieli: HM impairments to both
Procedural and declarative: Squire, knowing how and knowing what
Relates to episodic and semantic
Amnesiacs: declarative impaired but procedural fine - diff types of processes involved in procedural so important to understand - 3RETRIEVALTulving 1983: Encoding specificity principle
Bransford 1979, Morris 1977: TAP
Cues/processes match at encoding and retrieval - ease of retrieval
Tulving 1982: targets and weak associates: associates only help if present at encoding and retrieval stages
Morris 1977: phonetic/semantic processing - match conditions at memory test = better performance - 4IMPLICIT MEMORY PART 1Memory tested/used without conscious awareness
Implicit: word fragments
Explicit: recall/recognition
Perceptual: impoverished perceptual display to be solved e.g. word frag
Conceptual: requires semantic knowledge e.g. general knowledge qs, word association and category exemplar generation
Empirical evidence: Tulving 1982 word fragments - solved more if previously presented (Butler and Berry 2001 question whether this is unconscious as well as unintentional) - 5IMPLICIT MEMORY PART 2TAP: Relates to processes used e.g. free recall: best conceptual test, so no cues should be present in conceptual tests
Criticised by Hunt and Roediger/McDermott as some perceptual factors affect conceptual tasks and vice versa + circularity problems
MMS: links procedural and declarative system to performance on implicit/explicit - Squire
Criticised because lack of agreement defining systems and subsystems plus systems and localisation are only part of picture - must consider processes too
Amnesiac performance: Graf word preference task found implicit task yielded same results as controls + Vaidya found similar re implicit perceptual or implicit conceptual - problematic for TAP
Cermak links between familiarity and context-based processing and implicit/explicit tasks - 6JACOBY'S PROCESS DISSOCIATION FRAMEWORKIndependence of automatic and recollective processing re implicit memory
Jacoby 1993: Divided and focused attention - probabilities re respond with previously presented word - recollective or automatic if recollective fails/ automatic if recollective fails
Results found divided impaired recollective but not automatic
Criticised by Joordens and Merikle 1993 - automatic needed for retrieval but recollection only needed for acquiring more info about retrieved items thus not independence but redundancy of recollective processes for retrieval - 7REMEMBER AND KNOW JUDGEMENTSRemember: conscious awareness of learning episode
Know: gut feeling but no conscious awareness
Commonly tested via recognition because yields more know responses
eventually 'guess' option added to avoid too many 'knows'
Tulving: recall of word pairs - based on free recall: strongest reps, remember related to strength thus most remember from free recall - confirmed
Variables affect remember/know judgements e.g. level of processing and length of response deadline
Donaldson: response criteria not qualitatively different memory processes - relates to strength but this means semantic not strong?
Criticised by Conway 1997: MCT longitudinal study with students - shift from remember to know over time - endurance of know - abstraction of core remember info - support for semantic memory as an abstraction of episodic
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