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Learning and Memory
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- 1HabituationRepeated exposure to the same stimulus
Cause a decrease in response
(Having a response over something repeatedly, until it lessens and eventually goes away) - 2DishabituationRecovery of a response to a stimulus
After habituation
Noted when there is a second stimulus (itinterrupts the habituation process)
Causes an increase in response to the original stimulus
Temporary
Refers to changes in the original stimulus, not the new one - 3Associative learningCreation of a pairing
Between stimuli or between a behavior and a response - 4Classical conditioningType of associative learning
Takes advantage of instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli
Takes advantage of reflexsive response to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
(Also known as "acquisition")
Unconditioned stimulus = stimulus that provides reflexive response
Unconditioned response = reflexive response
Neutral stimulus = does not produce a response
Neutral response becomes a conditioned response - 5ExtinctionCan occur after successful conditioning
If conditioning stimulus occurs many times without unconditioning stimulus, learned behavior can stop occuring
Not always permanent - 6Spontaneous recoveryBehavior occuring after extinction
A weak, conditioned response may occur after stimulus is presented again - 7GeneralizationBroadening effect
Similar stimulus from conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response - 8DiscriminationDistinguished between two similar stimuli
Opposite of generalization - 9Operant conditioningLinks voluntary behaviors with consequences to alter the frequency of a behavior
B.F. Skinner
Reinforcement = process of increasing likelihood of a behavior from occuring (Positive and negative)
Punishment = process of decreasing likelihood of a behavior from occuring (Positive and Negative) - 10ReinforcementPositive: Increases behavior by adding an incentive after the desired behavior
Negative: Increases behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus
Negative reinforcers subdivided into 2 categories:
Escape learning - behavior reduces unpleasantness of something that already exists
Avoidance learning - meant to prevent the unpleasantness from even starting - 11PunishmentPositive: Decreases a behavior by adding an unpleasant consequence
Negative: Decreases a behavior by removing a stimulus - 12Fixed ratioReinforce behaviors after a specific number of performances for that behavior
(Rewarding a treat after performing the action 3 times successfully)
(Continuous reinforcement is a form of fixed ratio where behavior is rewarded after every occurance)
Period where the subject will stop performing action until it wants another reward - 13Variable-ratio (VR) scheduleReinforce a behavior after varying number of performances
Average number of performances to receive a reward is constant
Fastest for learning a behavior
Most resistant to extinction - 14Fixed-interval (FI) schedulesReinforce the first instant of a behavior after a specified time period
(A rat can get a pellet after only 60 seconds have passed. If they attempt to do something within those 60 seconds, no pellet will be granted)
Period where the subject will stop performing action until it wants another reward - 15Variable-interval (VI) schedulesReinforce a behavior the first time behavior is done, but not again within a specific time frame
Time frame of no reward is variable rather than fixed - 16ShapingProcess of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
Learn complex behavior in stages - 17Latent learningLearning that occurs without a reward but is spontaneously performed when a reward has been introduced
- 18Problem-solving"Trial and error" until they warrant a reward
As humans get older, they learn to take a step back and try to avoid having to use trial and error - 19PreparednessUsing a behavior that an animal is already predisposed to do (like reward specific pecking of a bird) yields good results
It is difficult to teach animals certain behaviors that work against their natural instinct
Instinctive drift - difficulty is overcoming instinctual behavior in an animal - 20Observational learningProcess of learning a new behavior by watching others
Not imitation, but actual learning
Uses mirror neurons - 21Mirror neuronsLocated in frontal and parietal lobes
Fires when individual performs an action AND ALSO when an individual observes someone else performing that action
Largley involved in motor processes - 22MemoryBroken into 3 major process:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval - 23EncodingPutting new information into memory
Automatic processing: info gained without effort
Controlled (effortful) processing: actively trying to remember
Different ways to encode: visually, acoustically, semantically (putting it into meaningful context)
Semantic is the strongest
Visual is the weakest - 24Semantic encodingSelf reference effect: recall info when we put it in the context of our lives (most successful)
Maintenance rehearsal: repetition of a piece of info to keep it in short term and turn it into long term memory
Mnemonics: Using acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide organization of info - 25MnemonicsAcronyms
Method of loci: Associating each item with a location along a route that has been established
Peg-word system: Associates numbers with items that rhyme or resemble
Chunking/Clustering: taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them into smaller list with meaning - 26Sensory memoryFirst & most fleeting of storage
Iconic (visual)
Echoic (auditory)
Lasts a very short time
Maintained by the major projection areas of each sensory system - 27Short-Term memoryFades quickly
(fades in about 30 secs without rehersal)
Limited in capacity to about 7 items
("7 plus or minus 2" rule)
Clustering can increase capacity
Housed primarily in the hippocampus - 28Working memorySupported by the hippocampus
Keep few pieces of info in consciousness
Integrate short term memory, attention, and executive function
Frontal and parietal lobe are involved
Ex. ) allows us to do math in our head - 29Long-term memoryLimitless warehouse of information
Elaborative rehearsal - associative of information to knowledge already stored in memory (tied to self-reference effect)
Controlled by hippocampus, but move in and out of cerebral cortex --> that's why damage to hippocampus does not mean we forget our names, birthday, etc.
Implicit (nondeclarative/procedural) memory: skills and conditioned response
Explicit (declarative) memory: memories that require conscious recall. 2 subcategories - 30Explicit memory"Declarative memory"
Require conscious recall
Episodic memory: experiences
Semantic memory: facts we know - 31RecognitionA form of "Retrieval"
Process of identifying a piece of info that was previously learned
Easier than recall - 32RelearningRecall may be poor, but relearning something like a list can be faster the next time around because it was already in long term
The "spacing effect" - the longer amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the info later - 33RecallComprises of a network of information
Semantic network: concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
Spreading activation: Linked concepts are unconsciously activated when one is activated. Heart of retrieval cue PRIMING
Context effects: memory is aided by being in the same physical location where encoding took place
State-dependent memory: the mental state of a person affects memory recall
Serial position effect: For lists. Easier recall for first few or last few in a list (primacy and recency effect, respectively). Primacy remains in memory for longer - 34ForgettingAlzheimer's disease: degenerative brain disorder.
Korsakoff's syndrome: thiamine deficiency in the brain
Agnosia: loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds (usually only 1 out of 3)
Decay from time
Interference: retrieval error caused by the existance of other information - 35Alzheimer's DisorderPossibly due to loss of acetylcholine that link to hippocampus. Loss of cognitive function (dementia) and memory, atrophy of brain.
Memory loss is retrograde (loss of recent memories first).
Microscopic findings: neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques. Sundowning - increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening - 36Korsakoff's syndromeMemory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
Marked by both anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Confabulation (process of creating vivid but fabricated memories - 37InterferenceRetrieval error caused by the existance of other (similar) information
Proactive interference: old information is interfering with new learning
Retroactive interference: new learning causes forgetting of old information - 38Memory constructionFalse memories
Confabulation
Misinformation effect - leading information can cause a change in memories
Source-monitoring error - confusion between semantic and episodic memory - 39Neurobiology of Learning and MemoryInfants have more neurons than they need
Neural connections can be made quickly (neuroplasticity)
Synaptic pruning: weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered
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- Fichas sobre Learning and Memory, creado por Sammy Skhir el 18/05/2017.
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- Sammy Skhir
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