Cognition 4+5

Cognition 4+5

1. Attention as information processing

   • attention = the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations
   • Processing capacity & perceptual load
     • P capacity
       • amount of how much information can be processed
     • P load
       • the difficulty to process certain tasks how practiced
       • Low load tasks
         • more likely distracted
       • High load tasks
         • easy to ignore task irrelevant stimuli but sometime you cannot
         • Stroop effect
           • slower responding to target bc competing response stimuli/irrelevant - level practice read color not words takes longer
       • Load theory of attention
         • Sophie Forster & Lavie have circle amount of processing capacity & room for task irrelevant stimuli depending on load
   • Attention as selection
     • Visual scanning
       • movements of the eye from one location to another
     • Late selection model of attention
       • by Mackay incoming information is processed to the level of meaning before selection
     • Overt attention
       • shifting attention by moving eyes
       • Covert attention
         • shifting attention while not moving eyes
         • Precuing method
           • Spotlight
             • = directed attention improves processing tasks 1) enhances response 2) when focus on particular spot it spreads to other parts of object
             • Same-object advantage
       • Fixation
         • pause at one face fex 'just in time' strategy eye movement - fixed on few irrelevant stimulies
         • Bottom-up
           • Stimulus salience
             • physical properties of an object salience map no considering of meaning
         • Top-down
           • can reduce illusory conjunctions
           • Scene schema
             • an observer's knowledge about what is contained in the typical scene /usually there different ppl different attention
       • Saccadic eye movement
         • from one fixation to the next
   • Divided attention
     • 1) hold some things in memory 2) paying attention to a series of distractor stimuli + determine if one of those is the other target
     • Attention capture
       • rapid shift in attention from one stimuli to another imp warning sign of potential danger
     • Automatic processing
       • 1) processing without intention 2) at cost of only some cognitive resources
       • Well practiced
         • when task is challanging it doesn't matter
   • Models
     • Broadbents filter model of attention
       • - a bottle neck model - early selection model
       • Dichotic listening
         • presenting different stimuli in the left and right ear
         • Shadowing
           • focus on one ear and try to repeat say it out load
         • The cocktail party effect
     • Treismans model of attention
       • Attenuator
         • replaced Broadbents filter with this: analyze messages 1) physical characteristics (low/high pich, fast/slow) 2) groups into words 3) its meaning
         • Evolve as much as needed
           • first stage 1 if low high pitch voice easy otherwise similiar voice might need stage 3 meaning to seperate messages
           • Dictionary unit
             • contains words in memory threshold for what is barely noticeable/being activated name low threshold
       • 'Leaky filter model'
         • Attended & unattended message full strenght vs weaker but exist
   • When we don't attend
     • focus on what's important not taking in everything
     • Distractions
     • Unattentional blindness
       • can be unaware of certain stimuli if they aren't focusing on that attention can affect perception
     • Change detection
       • lack of attention can affect attention
       • Change blindness
         • gorillas & umbrella women
       • Central/peripheral stimulus
         • possible to take in some information in scene even when your focus' elsewhere
   • Coherent world
     • Binding
       • combining features to create a unified perception of a coherent object
       • The binding problem
         • how objects features become bound together
         • Treismans
           • experiment
         • Illusory conjunctions
           • red triangle and green circle becomes red circle suffer balints syndrom two stimulus confusion
           • Visual/feature/conjunction dearch
             • looking for a specific object among other objects / one feature / several
     • Brain
       • Attention enhances activity at the locations in the topographic map that represents where attention is directed
       • Topographic map
         • spatial map of the visual stimuli on the visual cortex

2. The modal model of memory

   • memory: 1) ability to retian store retrieve stimuli after event is happening 2) active anytime a retrival cue of some sort exist
   • Short-term memory
     • moved on from sensory memory
     • Working memory
       • ''a limited capacity system for temporary storage & manipulation of information for complex tasks involving comprehension/Learning/reasoning''
       • Working memory & the brain
         • delay or waiting
         • Delayed response task
           • damage to prefrontal cortex = important for holding during delay - monkey holds info during delay
           • Neurons
             • - found neurons that holds information - flash on Square saw neurons still activated - particular location>available as long as neurons keep firing
           • Visual cortex
             • fine details are found at the beginning of the process where signals are arriving at the Visual cortex
             • Neural mind reading
               • Harrison & Tong - see whether sample was being held in Visual cortex during delay - fMIR during delay - experiment lines rotated?  
       • Dynamic transferring
         • to LTM - not only storage Baddely suggestion instead of only STM
         • Baddeley
           • Phonological loop
             • 1) phonological store 2) articulatory rehearsal process
             • Phonological similarity effect
               • confusion of letters/Words that sound similiar - demonstration by R.Conrad - based on sound rather than look
             • Word lenght effect
               • occurs when memory for lists of Words is better for short than long words - longer to rehearse/recall
             • Articulatory suppression
               • reduces memory when speaking interfers with rehearsal - eliminates Word lenght effect
           • Central executive
             • where major work happens coordinates Visual & verbal information - pulls from LTM - traffic cop of memory
             • Attention controller
               • Baddeley
               • Perservation
                 • repeated action/thought though not achieving the goal in mind - frontal lobe patients = breakdown of central executive's ability to Control attention
           • Visio-spatial sketchboard
             • holds Visual/spatial information - puzzle, orientation, form images in mind - interference Lee Brooks> pointing & imaging 
             • Visual imagery
               • in mind absence of physical stimuli - Roger Shepard & Jacqueline Metzler - remember patterns
               • Mental rotation
           • Episodic buffer
             • relating LGM & STM - chunking, meaning & unit - extra capacity> connected to LTM ''represents a way of increasing the storage capacity & Communication with LTM
     • Duration
       • 15-20 sec or less
       • Peterson & Peterson
         • experiment: - poor memory at 18s - decay decrease after several trials
         • Geoffrey Keppel & Benton Underwood
           • Proactive interference
             • worse memory after few trials - past interfer with new information due to time
           • Retroactive interference
             • new phone interfer with remebering the old number you learned
     • Capacity
       • Estimate
         • range from 4-9
         • Change detection
           • procedure to measure capacity of stm - recent 4 items limit
           • ERP
             • = event related potential - how much space was used of working memory when making a task - Edmund Vogel
         • Miller
           • Chunking
             • easier when they're in chunks of information - meaningful - chunk = Collection of elements that're strongly associated with one another
             • Information size/detail vs amount
               • like a computer - size vs amount of files Alvarez & Cavanagh
       • Digit span
         • number of digit a person can hold in stm
   • Sensory memory
     • brief persistance of an image - effects of sensory stimulation
     • Persistence of vision
       • continued vision of something that's no longer there - ex brief retention like Movie see no black pauses
       • Persistence of sound
         • echoed memory - you say waaat then hear it in your mind
     • George Sperling
       • experiment how many Words you perceive 4.5 out of 12
       • Whole report method
         • = report as many letters as you possibly can from the entire 12-letter display
         • Partial report method
           • 12 letters but a tone immediate after faded out
           • Delayed partial report method
             • time course of fading: letters flashed away then delay Before tone
       • Visual cue
         • short lived sensory memory register almost Everything but much decays within seconds
     • Capacity & duration
       • = large capacity brief duration
   • Long-term memory
     • Long-term episodic
       • memories
     • Long-term procedural
       • how to ride a bike fex
     • Long-term semantic
       • facts fex birthday
   • Sensory, STM, LTM
     • Richard Atkinson + Richard Shiffrin theory: modal model of memory - all act together
     • Structural features
       • every type of memory
       • Control processes
         • dynamic processes associated with a structural feature that 1 Person can Control 2 May differ between ppl
         • Rehearsal
           • example of a Control process strategies to remember strategies for focus attention

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