Chapter 6: Learning

Chapter 6: Learning

1. 1. Classical Conditioning

   • Pavlov's Demonstration
     • Pavlov was one who was responsible for turning psychology from research focusing on subjective accounts of experience, introspection, to a more objective, rigorous, scientific approach
     • He studies the role of saliva in the digestive process. He stumbled into what he called "psychic reflexes"
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • Unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
     • Unconditioned response is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
     • Conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke conditioned response.
   • Classical Conditioning inEveryday Life
     • Classical conditions often plays a key role in shaping emotional responses such as fear.
     • Evaluative conditioning refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. .
     • Immunosuppression is a decrease in the production of antibodies.
   • Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
     • Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning something.
     • extinction is the gradual wearing and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.
     • Renewal effect is a response that is extinguished in a different environment than it is acquired.
   • Stimulus Generation
     • Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
     • Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond that same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
     • High order conditioning, in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
   • Cognition and Classical Conditioning
     • A good sign is one that allows accurate prediction.
     • IN effect the classical conditioning procedure might have set up expectations that food would allow the simple auditory stimuli, the tone.
   • Evolutionary and Biological Effects on Conditioning
     • preparedness involves a species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others.
     • The findings on conditioned taste aversion and preparedness have led to the recognition that there are species specific to biological constraints on conditioning.

2. 2. Operant Conditioning

   • Thorndikes's Law of Effect
     • Instrumental learning is a term introduced by Edward Thorndike.
     • Law of effect is the presence of a stimulus that leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
   • Skinners Demonstration
     • Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organisms tendency to make that response.
     • Reinforcement is defined after the fact, in terms of its effect on behaviour, strengthening response.
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • An operant chamber is a small enclosure which an animal can make specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are somatically controlled.
     • To emit means to send fourth
     • reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.
   • Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
     • Shaping which consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
     • Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.
     • Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences of a response.
   • Reinforcement and Superstitious Behaviour
     • Reinforcement is the key to development of kinds of superstitious behaviours described by athletes.
     • The central processes in reinforcement is the strengthening of a response.
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     • A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response results in the presentation of a reinforcer.
     • Continuous reinforcement occurs when instance of a designated response is reinforced.
     • Intermittent, or partial, reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
   • Positive Reinforcement
     • Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed buy the presentation of rewarding stimulus.
     • negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aggressive stimulus.
     • In escape learning an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.
   • Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Response
     • Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.
     • Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus thereby strengthening a response.
     • Punishment occurs at any time that undesirable consequences weaken a response tendency.
   • Cognitive Processes in Conditioning
     • Latent learning -learnng is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs.
     • At a time when cognitive processes were thought to be irrelevant to understanding conditioning even in humans.
   • Evolutionary and Biological Effects on Conditioning
     • Instinctive drift occurs when an animals innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes.
     • Observational learning occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models.
     • Involves being conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing another's conditioning.

3. 3. Observational Learning

   • Basic Process
     • Attention: to learn through observation, you must pay attention to another persons behaviour and its consequences.
     • Retention: you may not have occasion to use an observed response for weeks, months or even years. You must store in your memory a mental representation of what you have witnessed.
     • Reproduction is enhancing a modelled response to the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behaviour.
   • Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy
     • Canadians seem to be spending a large amount of their free time in front of a screen,
     • typical adult spends 30 hours a week in front of TV's.
     • TV watching may have a negative effect on academic performance and health.
   • Observational Learning and the Brain
     • Mirror neutrons are neutrons that are activated by preforming an action or by seeing other monkey or person preform same action.
     • Some have even suggested that the mirror neutron will be as important to psychology as discovery of DNA has been for Biology