Learning

Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Classical Conditioning In Everyday Life
     • -Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response originally evoked by another stimulus  -Classical conditioning mainly regulates involuntary, reflexive responses  -Examples include emotional responses (such as fears) and physiological responses (such as immunosuppression)  
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • -Responses controlled through classical conditioning are said to be elicited -Classical conditioning begins with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR)  -Then a neural stimulus is paired with the UCS until it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR)
   • Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
     • -Acquisition occurs when a CS and UCS are paired, gradually resulting in a CR -Acquisition depends on stimulus contiguity, which is a temporal association between events -Extinction occurs when a CS is repeatedly presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR -Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS
   • Stimulus Generalization and the Mysterious Case of Little Albert
     • -Generalization occurs when a CR is elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS -Discrimination occurs when a CR is not elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS -Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS 
   • Pavlov's Demonstration: "Psychic Reflexes"
     • -Classical conditioning was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to salivate when a tone was presented 

2. Operant Conditioning

   • Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
     • -Acquisition occurs when a response gradually increases due to contingent reinforcement  -Acquisition may involve shaping--the reinforcement of closer and closer approximation of the desired response  -Extinction occurs when responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated  -Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after after reinforcement for it has been terminated -Generalization occurs when responding increases in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus  -Discrimination occurs when responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus -Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing, whereas secondary reinforcers develop through learning 
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • -Response controlled through operant conditioning are said to be emitted  -Demonstrations of operant conditioning typically occur in a Skinner box where an animal's reinforcement is controlled -The key dependant variable is the animal's responsive rate as monitored by a cumulative recorder, with results portrayed in graphs (steeper slopes are indicative of faster responding) 
   • Reinforcement and Superstitious Behaviour
     • -Reinforcement is most effective when it is immediate; delayed reinforcement undermines response acquisition -continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced  -intermittent reinforcement occurs when a response is reinforced only some of the time
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     • -in ratio schedules, the reinforcer is given after a fixed (FR) or variable (VR) number of nonreinforced responses -in interval schedules, the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed  (FI) or variable (VI) time interval has elapsed  -ratio schedules (FR and VR) tend to yield higher response rates, whereas variable schedules (VR and VI) tend to yield more resistance to extinction
   • Positive Reinforcement verses Negative Reinforcement
     • -positive reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus -negative reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus -negative reinforcement plays a key role in escape learning and avoidance learning
   • Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses
     • -punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response  -punishment may result in the side effects such as negative emotional responses and increased aggressive behaviour -when used for disciplinary reasons, punishments should be applied swiftly, just severe enough to be effective, explained and not physical
   • Cognitive Processes in Conditioning: Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
     • -Edward Tolman's research on latent learning and cognitive maps suggested many years ago that cognitive processes play a role in conditioning, but his views were ahead of their time -Robert Rescorla showed that the predictive value of a CS influences the process of classical conditioning -When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if it appears to have caused the favourable outcome -Modern theories hold that conditioning is a matter of detecting the contingencies that govern events
   • Skinner's Demonstration: It's All a Matter of Consequences
     • -Operant conditioning was pioneered by B.F. Skinner, who showed that rats and pigeons tend to repeat responses that are followed by favourable outcomes -Operant conditioning mainly regulates voluntary, spontaneous responses, such as studying, going to work, telling jokes and asking someone out
   • Thorndike's Law of Effect
     • -Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences  -E.L Thorndike's work on instrumental learning and the law of effect provided the foundation for the study of operant conditioning

3. Observational Learning

   • Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy
     • -Observational learning occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, called models -Observational learning was pioneered by Albert Bandura, who showed that conditioning does not have to to be a product of direct exposure -Both classical and operant conditioning can take place through observational learning -Observational learning depends on the processes of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation -Bandura distinguishes between the acquisition of a learned response and the performance of that response, with the latter depending on reinforcement -Observational learning can explain why physical punishment tends to increase aggression in children even when it is intended to do the opposite, and why exposure to media violence correlates with increased aggression and desensitization to the effects of violence -Recent research suggests that a specific type of neuron, "mirror neurons" may partially account for some observational learning effects

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