Levels (Depth) of Processing

Levels (Depth) of Processing

1. Memory depends not on a particular memory store but on the initial processing of the information.

2. "Deeper" processing (e.g., the semantic analysis of stimuli) results in better retention than "shallow" or "superficial" processing (e.g., the analysis of visual shape or acoustic sound).

3. Craik & Watkins (1973)

   • Question
     • If rehearsal in STM really helps encode information into LTM?
   • Memory Task
   • Final surprise recall task
   • Result
     • Rehearsal time did not affect the performance in the unanticipated final recall.
   • Conclusions
     • Maintenance Rehearsal
       • The material is rehearsed in a temporary, shallow way that does not result in a permanent memory trace.
     • Elaborative Rehearsal
       • Rehearsal involves adding context to the material.

4. Shallow Processing

   • Repeated automatic sensory analysis of a stimulus.

5. Deep Processing

   • The processing needed to "understand" something, often involving elaborative, semantic analysis of a stimulus
   • A deep process is
     • Effortful
     • Not automatic
     • Explicitly chosen
       • Increases distinctiveness
     • Unlikely to be repeated
       • Increases distinctiveness

6. Craik & Tulving (1975)

   • 3 Kinds of questions were asked
     • Whether the word was printed in capital letters
     • Whether it rhymed with another word
     • Whether the word fits into a particular sentence
   • 3 Kinds of processing are involved
     • Structural
     • Phonemic
     • Semantic
   • Hypothesis
     • The "depth" of the processing needed is greatest for the third & least for the first kind of question.
   • Results
     • Words processed semantically were remembered best, followed by words processed acoustically.
   • Explanation
     • It is the depth of processing rather than the rehearsing time or transfer from STM to LTM that determines recall performance.
   • An alternative Explanation
     • Participants spent more time processing semantic questions.
   • Further Testing
     • Even when the "shallow" processing was prolonged, memory was still the best for more deeply processed information.

7. Other Determinants of Depth of Processing

   • Bower & Karlin (1974)
     • Participants who rated faces for "honesty" showed better memory than those who rated the faces according to gender.
     • It shows that semantic property is not the only determinant for the depth of the processing.
   • Brinol et al. (2007)
     • Self-affirmation increases self-confidence & results in shallow information processing.

8. New Explanations of Standard Memory Phenomenon - Serial Position Effects

   • Primacy effect
     • The stage model explanation
       • More rehearsal
     • The levels of processing model explanation
       • More elaborative rehearsal
   • Recency Effect
     • The stage model explanation
       • The last few items are still in STM & are thus more easily recalled.
     • The levels of processing model explanation
       • The effect is a result of a shift in processing strategy from elaborative to maintenance rehearsal
   • Watkins & Watkins' (1974)
     • Lists of unknown length
       • Reduced recency effect in an immediate test
         • Better performance in the final surprise recall task
     • Knowing the length of each list
       • Sizable recency effect in an immediate test
         • Poor performance in the final surprise recall task
     • Take home message
       • Maintenance rehearsal has only immediate benefits but long-term drawbacks.
       • Better memory does not depend on trying to remember but trying to understand.

9. 2 Contributing Factors

   • Deep processing benefits memory performance by 2 means
     • Distinctiveness
       • Helps to remember differences between similar items.
     • Elaboration
       • Helps to remember similarities between different items.