MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

1. a valenced response to an external/internal stimulus

   • Basic vs Emotional schemas
     • Innate/evolutionary, automatic process, universal. Fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust
     • learned, developed, more complex. shame, jealousy

2. Energization of behaviour that gives direction (approach and avoidance) initiates, maintains, directs and finalizes an action

   • Types of motivation
     • Homeostasis: basic motivation to reach a stable physiological state, given a set point,
       • settling point: equilibrium between opposite forces, affected by external elements (hunger vs satiety depending on availability of resources)
     • extrinsic: external, linked to reward and punishment . leads to negative affect and undermines performance.
     • intrinsic: internal, personal gain, needs, goal . leads to positive affect and greater performance
       • Over-justification effect: reduction of intrinsic motivation by extrinsic reward
   • NEEDS: satisfaction of a need is necessary for an organism to live a healthy life.
     • psychological needs
       • Deci & Ryan, Self-detemrination theory. basic needs: competence, autonomy, relatedness, people want to feel affective in their activities so they feel they are self chosen and to feel closeness to others.
       • Epstein.basic needs: self esteem, relatedness (affection) and self consistency (safety) and pleasure
       • American Dream: happinesss results when individuals acquire popularity, influence and money luxuries.
       • Swann: need self enhancement and self consistency.
       • Terror Management theory: individuals have desire to live. we are aware of our own death, therefore 2 defence mechanims: self-esteem, safety. less important: self-expansive.
     • psychological and physiological
       • MASLOW:
         • CRITICISMS, developmental stages of affection. self-actualisation isnt functional under an evolutionary POV. developmental priorities may not be related to current priorities
         • OTHER TYPES
           • KENRIK, pyramid with evolutionary functions at top (mate acquisition, parenting, mate retention)
         • Sheldon: converged theories. four fundamental are enhancement needs. competence, autonomy, belongingness and self-esteem. siggetsed 10 needs however other 6 changed across cultures
       • MASLOW
   • DRIVES: acts of motivation that have primarily biological purposes

3. LINK : emotional schema can be temperamental or motivational. emotion modulates motivation to reach a goal.

4. NEURAL CORRELATES

   • APPROACHES TO EMOTIONAL BRAIN
     • LIMBIC SYSTEM THEORY. (MacLean). 1 system for all emotions,
     • BASIC EMOTION THEORY. 6 basic emotions, each emotion has a different system.
     • LEDOUX: one emotion processed at a time. how brain learns about, detects and responds to events/stimuli
       • low road directly from thalamus to amygdala -> triggers/primes automatic responses. high road: thalamus -> sensory cortex (for analysis) -> amygdala (slower process)
       • AMYGDALA: to give valence/relative value to a sensory input, mediates avoidance/approach.
         • CENTRAL (innate responses, outputs)
           • output to orbital & medial prefrontal cortex. leads to conscious experience of reward, planning to obtain reward and avoid punishment
           • hypothalamus & brain stem: autonomic, endocrine and behavoural responses
         • LATERAL (inputs)
           • TRIGGER CELLS & STORAGE CELLS: associative learning and unconscious emotional memory (vs hippocampal conscious memory of emotion)
         • FEAR & REWARD
   • DOPAMINE:
     • Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA - regulates) -> prefrontal & insular cortex/nucleus accumbens & limbic structures
     • REWARD PREDICTION ERROR (Schultz): dopamine signal = actual reward - expected reward. +ve = activation, -ve = depression, 0 = no response
     • increases effect of positive/negative motivators
   • NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS (linked to reward, addiction and emotional stimuli)
     • dopamine release occurs in anticipation of reward, so is motivational
     • INPUTS: prefrontal association cortex, amygdala, dopaminergic cells of VTA
     • OUTPUTS: basal ganglia-> thalamus -> prefrontal cortex. this leads to awareness.

5. IMPULSIVITY: Acting suddenly, and without plan to satisfy immediate desire. Inability to inhibit inappropriate actions and insensitivity to consequences. (Moallem & Papachristou)

   • Sensitivity to Reward: predisposition to detect and pursue rewarding stimuli
     • Nucleus Accumbens: high activity shows more sensitivity to rewards -> more impulsive
       • Demos: heightened activity to appetitive cues can predict future behaviors. eg. higher activity to a beer bottle stimulus predicts future alcohol intake
     • Delay reward discounting: focus on ST reward compared to LT greater reward. Measured with IOWA gambling task
       • Somatic Marker hypothesis: people have somatic markers that regulate decision making, more impulsive -> markers unable to be read and therefore not used as well -> worse decisions
     • Risky decision making. Balloon Analog Risk Task
     • Neural circuits
       • +ve correlations to impulsivity
         • ventral amygdala
       • -ve correlations to impulsivity
         • dorsal amygdala.
     • Behaviorual Activation System: regulates appetitive and reward seeking behaviour, increases motor output. Behavioural Inhibition System: passive avoidance of punishment and non-reward, decreases motor output
   • Response Inhibition: ability to inhibit thoughts or behaviour. measured with Go-nogo tasks (stop-signal task)
     • poor response inhibition, -> risk factor as makes more vulnerable to contextual cues -> more impulsivity.
     • Neural Circuits
       • +ve correlation to impulsivity
         • Bilateral Caudale
         • Dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus.
       • -ve correlation to impulsivity
         • vPFC
   • Measurement as a personality trait: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale

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