BIOL 2457

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Orientation to the Human Body

*NOT ON TEST but vocabs will be used*

Gross Anatomy: Large body structures visible W/O microscope

Regional Anatomy: All structures in a particular body region (ex. abdomen)

Systemic Anatomy: All structures in specific body system (ex. reproductive system)

Surface Anatomy: Internal structures as they relate to the skin (ex. locating blood vessels)

Microscopic Anatomy: Small body structures only VISIBLE w/ microscope

ANATOMY VS. PHYSIOLOGY

Know what's the difference btwn anatomy vs. physiology

- ___________ is classified as anatomy or physiology?

A&P Hierarchy

- Cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

3 key concepts of A&P

(1) Complementarily of structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)

-----> Must understand anatomy to understand physiology *function reflects the underlying structure*

(2) Organ systems interact w/ each other

------> Many physiology processes depend on interactions btwn several organ systems *Ex. Cardiovascular & respiratory systems work together*

(3) ALL ABOUT HOMEOSTASIS

------> When body is NOT at homeostasis, physiology change a lot; to understand physiology, we must study the physiological responses when homeostasis is deviated from

VITAL FUNCTIONS

Movement (Walking somewhere or movement of blood or food)

Separation of internal/external environments

Responsiveness to stimuli

Digestion/Absorption

Metabolism

Excretion

Growth

Reproduction (Not exactly vital b/c it doesn't sustain one's own life)

SURVIVAL NEEDS

Nutrients

Ions

Water

Oxygen

Normal body temp.

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

ALL ABOUT HOMEOSTASIS *WILL BE ON TEST!!!*

Constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions

Homeostasis is a DYNAMIC (changes) state of equilibrium & focuses on BALANCE

How does the body maintain homeostasis? Mainly through these 2 feedbacks

These feedbacks BOTH FIX THE ISSUE, just in different ways

Negative feedback: When the product of a reaction leads to a DECREASE IN THAT REACTION; RESPONSE IS OPPOSITE TO OUTPUT OF EVENT

Moves the system CLOSER to equilibrium

Responsible for stability; ensuring a steady state

Ex: Temperature regulation, blood regulation, osmoregulation

Positive feedback: When the product of a reaction leads to an INCREASE IN THAT REACTION; RESPONSE HEIGHTENS.

Moves the system further AWAY from equilibrium

Does this by amplifying the effects of a product or event b/c something needs to happen quickly

Ex: Childbirth, blood clotting

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Used to describe location of one body structure in relation to another

Humans are BIPEDS while other animals like a crocodile is QUADRIPEDS

Standard anatomical position: Erect body, feet slightly apart, palms forwards, thumbs pointing away from body

REGIONAL TERMS

Anterior or Ventral

Posterior or Dorsal

BODY PLANES & SECTIONS

Tranverse Plane

Frontal Plane

Mid-saggital Plane

- Sections:

(1) Cross

(2) Frontal

(3) Median

BODY CAVITIES

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS

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Chemistry of Life

MATTER & ENERGY *NOT ON TEST*

Matter: anything that takes up space & energy

- Exists in solid, liquid, or gas states

Energy: the capacity to put matter in motion or DO WORK

- More work = more energy

- Potential vs. Kinetic

- Chemical energy: ATP, glycogen, fat

- Electrical energy: neurons

- Mechanical energy: muscles

- Electromagnetic energy: eyeballs

All living things are composed of matter & all require energy to grow, function, & reproduce

The big 4: O, N, C, and H

- Also crucial: Ca (bone), P (ATP), S, Mg, Fe (blood)

Molecules: 2 or more atoms of the SAME element Compounds: 2 or more atoms of DIFFERENT elements

Mixture: Combining elements or compounds BUT NOT BOUND BY CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Solutions: Solutes are evenly dispersed; CLEAR

​​​​​​Colloids (emulsions): Solutes are not evenly dispersed, large enough to scatter light; cloudy, NOT CLEAR

Suspensions (heterogeneous): Solutes large enough that eventually settle; separate, like water and oil

CHEMICAL BONDS

Ionic bonds: bond created when a cation and anion transfer electrons; the charge creates the bond

Covalent bonds: bond formed when 2 atoms share electrons

Hydrogen bonds: bond formed btwn hydrogen atoms b/c water is so electronegative

Van der Waals Forces: bond formed btwn nearby molecules due to unequal charge distribution

Chemical rxn is when bonds are formed (synthesis/anabolic), breaks (decomposition/catabolic), and exchange

Know what a redox rxn (part of decomposition b/c you break down glucose)

All covalently bonded compounds that CONTAIN CARBON

- Anything else is inorganic

+ Important inorganic compounds: WATER, salts, acids & bases

Water characteristics:

- High heat capacity (can take/hold a lot of heat; hard to heat up vs. other substance; advantage to us for our body temp)

- High heat of vaporization (boiling point how much heat is released when water vaporize; ex. sweating)

- Polar solvent properties (universal solvent b/c it's polar; hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic)

- Reactivity (reacts violently with column 1)

- Cushioning (spinal fluid; cushioning for spine)

Salts

- ALWAYS Ionic compounds (cations & anions)

- All ions are electrolytes!!! (Could be weak or strong)

Acids vs. Bases

- ALWAYS ionic compounds (cat & an)

- All ions are electrolytes (weak vs. strong acids or bases)

- Acids:

- Bases:

Homeostasis pH @ 7.4

- Buffers can be used to maintain acids & base; regulate body's pH

Macromolecules (polymers) are made up of chains of micromolecules (monomers)

- Polymers are formed by dehydration synthesis & broken by hydrolysis

+ Using water to split the bond (hydrolysis); take away water to form

+ Carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Remember: Carbohydrates are hydrated carbons

- MUST KNOW:

+ Monosaccharides: Deoxyribose, ribose, glucose, fructose, galactose

+ Disaccharides: Sucrose, lactose, maltose

+ Polysaccharides: glycogen (in animals in muscles or livers) (easy energy source)

--------> Vs. Cellulose (in plants)

Lipids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

- Hydrophobic

- Fatty acids are either saturated (solid or straight no kink) or unsaturated (bent or w/ kink; that's why they're liquid at room temperature, having the kink provides more space; not as packed)

- Triglycerides: 1 Glycerol as backbone + 3 Fatty acids (varies in whether it's saturated or unsaturated)

- Main function: Insulation against heat loss & protection from physical trauma; main source of stored energy

- Phospholipids: what our cell membrane is made of; transport lipids in blood; diglycerides w/ a phosphate group & fatty acids attached (has polar head b/c of phosphate group)

Steroids: 4 hydrocarbon ring; vast functions; can be steroid hormones

Proteins: BUILDING BLOCK OF THE BODY; your DNA is just the blueprint

- Made up of amino acids (monomers)

- Amino acid: Amino group (NH2) + organic acid group (COOH) + R groups (unique)

- Peptide bonds link 2 amino acids together which create a dipeptide; 3 to create tripeptide; 10 or more is polypeptide; 50 for a PROTEIN

- The order of these linked amino acids create different proteins

- Know what's the 4 structural level of protein: what primary vs secondary vs tertiary vs quaternary (cooking an egg could put its form from teritiary to primary)

Types of proteins!

(1) Fibrous proteins (exhibit 2, 3, 4th structure)

+ Structural proteins, insoluble to water, high stability; DOES NOT DENATURE EASILY (takes a lot of heat to melt or break down your muscle or finger nails)

+ Ex: Collagen, keratin, elastin, actin, myosin

+ Main: Mechanical support, tensile strength, contracitility

(2) Globular proteins (exhibit 3, 4th structure)

+ Functional proteins, Soluble to water, EASILY DENATURED, active in all biological processses

+ Ex: hormones, antibodies, hemoglobin, enzymes

+ Main: Signaling, immune function,

Nucleic acids: Largest moleucles!!!

- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & phosphate

- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA): Imagine DNA as a helix (2 strands); RNA is 1 strand

- How are they different?

+ Virus genetic is RNA; all other organisms are DNA

(1) Dna is strictly in the nucleus; RNA is in the cytoplasm, ribosomes, ER, nucleolus

(2) DNA is double stranded; RNA is single stranded

(3) DNA has A, T, G, C; RNA has A, U, G, C

(4) DNA --> RNA --> Protein (Cental dogma a.k.a. protein synthesis)

ATP!

- Primary energy-transfer molecule

- ATP --> Hydrolysis = ADP +P + energy

- ADP + P + energy ---> phosphorylation = ATP

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Cells: The Basic Living Units

1) Smallest, BASIC unit of life

- What is the smallest most basic unit of the nervous system? Neurons

2) Cells come from other cells

- Mitosis vs. Meiosis

3) Cells are defined by their structures AND by the number of organelles they have

- Cells that need a lot of ATP will have more mitochondria

- This cell has a lot of smooth ER. Where would you find this cell? Where your body needs detoxification (liver, etc.)

4) Activities of an organism depend on BOTH individual and combined activities of cells

What are the 3 major parts of a cell?

1) Plasma membrane

Separates intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

Fluid mosaic model b/c of phospholipid bilayer w/ proteins embedded in

Functions:

- Mechanical barrier

- Selectively permeable

- Communication (CELL RECOGNITION; how cells recognize to say they're normal)

- Cell signaling (things can bind to that cell & response; RECEPTORS & RESPONSE)

- Electrochemical gradient (Important for nervous system's functions)

Phospholipids (saturated or unsaturated)

- Polar phosphate group (hydrophilic) + non-polar fatty acids tails (hydrophobic)

- Outer and inner surface

- = 75% of membrane lipids

Cholesterol

- Hydrocarbon rings btwn phospholipid tails

- Embedded into membrane

- Membrane fluidity: stabilize fluidity despite temperature changes (cold, space out/hot, contracts, less space)

- = 20% of membrane lipids

Glycolipids: Helps one cell stick to another cell

- Polar sugar groups + non-polar fatty acids

- ONLY on outer membrane surface

- = 5% of membrane lipids

Integral proteins: embedded into membrane

- IF IT INCLUDE THESE NAME IT'S INTEGRAL: transporters, channels, receptors, enzymes, pumps

Peripheral proteins: loosely ATTACHED TO integral proteins

- INCLUDE: cytoskeleton, extracellular matrix proteins, motor proteins

Glycoproteins (part of the glycocalyx): Help cells RECOGNIZE & INTERACT w/ each other

- Abundant proteins w/ sugar groups

- Cell-cell interactions & cell-cell recognition

3 factors bind cells together: glycoproteins, wavy shape of cell membranes, and CELL JUNCTIONS

Tight junctions (impermeable "too tight to pass")

- Occludins in membrane of adjacent cells FUSE TOGETHER, forming impermeable junctions that ENCIRCLE each cell; regulates what goes in/out

- Where to find? Stomach lining (you want minimal things leaving and entering the other tissues b/c of acid) & the brain

Desmosomes ("anchoring")

- 2 parts arise from cytoplasmic plagues:

(1) Intermediate (keratin) filaments

(2) Linker (cadherin) proteins

- STRUCTURE AND DURABILITY

- Where to find? Bones, ligaments, tendons, cardiac muscle, skin (pull them, twist them and they go right back; doesn't rip)

Gap junctions ("communication NEXUS")

- Membranes of adjacent cells are very close & connected by connexons

2 types of transport: PASSIVE VS. ACTIVE

Things that RIGHT through the membrane: non-polar (oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids/hormones) or small polar molecules: water, urea

Things that DOES NOT: ions (Na+, K+, Cl-) or large polar molecules (glucose)

Passive: NO ENERGY BUT W/ AND W/O TRANSPORT PROTEINS; down the gradient

Active: ATP; W/ transport proteins; AGAINST the gradient

Types of passive transport (follows the gradient) (NO ENERGY NEEDED)

- Chemical(CONCENTRATION) gradients: focuses on HOW MUCH of EACH molecule/ion; if there's more Na+ on the outside, it'll want to go inside for balance

- Electrical gradients: focuses on THE CHARGE; doesn't matter the type of molecule, just matter about its charge; Both Na+ and K+ will want to go inside if it's LESS POSITIVE or more negative inside than outside - Both gradient could be happening at the same time so WHICHEVER GRADIENT IS STRONGER WILL WIN OUT

- Electrochemical gradients:

2) Cytoplasm & organelles

Cytosol: 55% cell volume ; mostly water

- Various dissolved particles

Organelles: throughout cell

- Specialized structure w/ characteristics shapes and functions

- Allow cells to grow, maintain themselves, and reproduce

- SOME CELLS have:

(1) Hepatocytes: polysacchardies

(2) Myocytes: muscle cells; glycogen

(3) Adipocytes: fat cells; lipid

(4) Melanocytes: melanin

Specific organelles not included, just study from slides

- Lysosomes: Macrophage

- Peroxisomes: modified atoms that destroy your DNA

- Proteasomes: broad category, there's all types of proteasomes; they destroy damaged proteins

Cytoskeleton: network of protein filaments that extend through cytosol to provide framework and movement

- Microfilaments

- Interfilaments (thinnest): made of actin, help w/ movement, support, form microvili

- Intermediate filaments (medium-sized): twisted tetramer fibrils, high strength, hold organelles in place, attach cells together

- Microtubules (thickest): hollow tubes of tubulin proteins, determine cell shape, the location of organelles, form cilia and flagella, mitosis

Centrosome: made of 2 parts; mitosis; anchors microtubules; forms bases for cilia and flagella

- Centrioles

- Pericenriolar material

Just know the difference between cilia and flagella like what they look like and what they do

- Cilia: shorter, more of them, moves fluid across cell's surface; respiratory tracks

- Flagella: longer, moves the entire cell, SPERMMMMMM, JIZZ, CUM, BAE'S BALL SACKS OMG, ME SWALLOW SO HARD OH YES

3) Nucleus

Nucleoli

- Where ribosomal units are made

- Some nucleus have more than one

Nuclear envelope

- Double membrane, outer membrane is continuous with rough ER

- Nuclear pores are all around and regulate entry and exit of molecules

- rRNA (subunits of ribosomes), mRNA leaves, steroid hormones enter

Skeletal muscles have a lot of nuclei

- Cells can be nucleate, multinucleate, and anucleate

Chromatin: not "free-DNA", these are strands wrapped in proteins already; 30% DNA, 60% histone protens, 10% RNA

Chromosomes: coiled and condensed chromatins in double -helix

Central dogma: DNA ---> transcription---> RNA ----> translation-----> protein

Extracellular Materials: substances outside of cells that contribute to body mass

Body fluids (things made of water)

- Interstitial fluid (btwn all the tissues), blood plasma (btwn all your red/white blood cells), CSF

- Act as transport & dissolving media

Cell secretions: anything that's secreted from the cells

- Intestinal/ gastric juices (enzymes, hormones, vaginal discharge), saliva, mucus, sweat, etc.

- Aid in lubrication and digestion

Extracellular matrix (ECM)

Simple diffusion (nonpolar & lipid soluble substance)

Solutes move freely through membrane

Does not require help of membrane transport proteins (many types of transport proteins)

DOES NOT require ATP

Facilitated diffusion (some ions or amino acids or monosaccharides)

Solutes move through membrane channels (channel-mediated) OR transport proteins (carrier-mediated)

DOES NOT require ATP!

Osmosis (water) (HIGH TO LOW; passive)

Involves NET movement of water through membrane

Occurs through BOTH aquaporins OR simple diffusion

Occurs when the concentration is different on 2 sides of membrane:

- Water concentration (HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE); high hydrostatic pressure = high water concentration ; Ex: Your blood has hydrostatic pressure; that's why it sprays if you cut it

- Solutes concentraion (OSMALARITY*** MUST KNOW)

- When there's HIGH OSMOTIC PRESSURE (more solute), water will go to it! So high osmotic pressure + water = lower osmotic pressure but then it'll be higher hydrostatic pressure b/c more water is now present b/c of the original high osmotic pressure

Osmolarity: TOTAL concentration of ALL solutes in a solution vs. inside a cell (THIS TERM IS USED TO COMPARE 2+ SOLUTIONS)

Hyperosmotic: more

Isomotic: same

Hyposmotic: less

Tonicity: ability of solution to change shape of cell by altering it's water volume (USED TO COMPARE 2+ SOLUTIONS WITH CELLS IN THEM)

Hypertonic: MORE solute in solution so water flow our of cell, shrinking it; shrivels

Isotonic: same; healthy cell

Hypotonic: LESS solute in solution so water flow INTO the cell; swelling it or even bursting it

Active Membrane Transport: movement of substances across membrane AGAINST concentration or electrochemical gradient

Active Transport:

Primary active transport

- DIRECTLY uses ATP

- Energy RELEASED from hydrolysis ATP

- Ex: using ATP to move sodium & potassium in and out

Secondary active transport

- INDIRECTLY uses ATP; how?

- Uses STORE ENERGY in electrochemical gradient to drive the transport of solutes

- Ex: by actively pumping Na+ & K+ against it's gradient, energy is stored in the form of electrochemical gradient; you can now transport glucose which is a much bigger solute, against its own electrochemical gradient

- YOU GET SECONDARY WHEN A GRADIENT IS CREATED BY PRIMARY TRANSPORT

- Movement of solutes can be in the same direction () or opposite direction ()

Vesicular Transport: large solutes are transported in vesicles; move around the cell, in, or out

Endocytosis: ENDO = INTO CELL

- Phagocytosis "cell eating": Cell engulfs large particles bound to receptors; phagosome forms when bubble form and wrap around particle; maybe receptors

- Pinocytosis "cell drinking": Cells engulfs small extracellular FLUID w/ dissolved molecules; no receptors involved

- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: HIGHLY selective; ALWAYS RECEPTORS; cell engulfs specific LIGANDS that bind to specific receptors after a vesicle forms like pathogens; hormones

Exocytosis: EXO = OUT OF CELL

- Release materials from cell

- Starts by binding hormone to its receptor or change in membrane voltage (potential)

-Fusion of secretory vesicles

Transcytosis

Vesicular trafficking

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Tissues