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Correlational Research = variables are not manipulated, but are only measured

purpose is to identify the relationship between the variables

data from correlational research cannot prove causality; correlation does not equal causation

Ex: correlation between the set of variables-- such as blood pressure and cholesterol level-- is examined

Experimental Research = variables are manipulated, and the effects of the manipulation is measured upon the dependent variable

a treatment is deliberately imposed on a group of objects or participants

causal relations between variables can only be conclusively demonstrated by experimental data

Ex: blood pressure can be artificially increased by a researcher; and then cholesterol level is recorded, showing increase or decrease

Decision Strategies

algorithms = step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

can be laborious

heuristic = simpler thinking strategies

more error-prone

insight = an abrupt, true-seeming and often satisfying solution

when we puzzle over a problem and the pieces suddenly fall together

confirmation bias = a tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore of distort contradictory evidence

overconfidence = the tendency to be more confident than correct-- to overestimate our accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perserverance = clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing = the way an issue is posed, how an issue is framed can significantly effect decisions and judgements

Basic memory processes

encoding = the processing of info into the memory system-- for example, by extracting meaning

storage = the retention of encoded info over time

retrieval = the process of getting info out of memory storage

sensory memory = the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system

short-term memory = activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the info is stored or forgotten

long-term memory = the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system-- knowledge, skills, and experience

working memory = a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial info, and of info retrieved from long-term memory

Gestalt principles

- perceptual organization

proximity = we group nearby figures together.

continuity = we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

closure = we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

- depth perception = the ability to see objects in three-dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Major divisions of the brain

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain = centralized control center

spinal cord = transmits signals b/w brain and the rest of the body

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - autonomic

involuntary nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs

sympathetic nervous system = arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic = calms the body, conserving its energy

cortex = the outer layer of the cerebrum (the cerebral cortex), composed of folded gray matter and playing an important role in consciousness

thalamus = brain's sensory router

located at the top of the brainstem

directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

hypothalamus = below the thalamus

directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp)

helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

linked to emotion and reward

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