Modern Middle East

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Foundations of Islam

Origins and Core Doctrine

Arabia at the Founding (late 500AD)

*Arabian Expansiveness and Isolation

*The Nomadic Bedouins

-Always on the move, migrate

* The Tribal Sheik

-Based on family

-Sheik- head of tribes

*Polytheism and Allah

-Worshiped many gods

-Allah- supreme being or god

*The Ka'ba (Cube)

-housed meterorite

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The Life of the Prophet

Early Life:

* Muhammad ibn (son of) Abdullah (b. 570 AD) -trader

* The Tribe of Hashim (Hashemites)

* Orphanage in Mecca

* Abu Talib (Uncle)

- Muhammad orphaned at 2 and went to live with uncle

* Marriage to Khadijah + 4 daughters

** Nothing to indicate that he was different from anyone else

Conversion (610)

* Meditation and Prayer in the Wilderness

* The Angel Gabriel and the Night of Power

- Gabriel told him that he would become the receiptient of God's divine revelation, and would be the last one

* Revelation and the Quran

* The absence of Divinity

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Muhammad's Ministry

Phase #1 (Mecca, 610-622)

* Monotheism, omnipotence, charity, judgement

* The first converts- Khadijah and Abu Bakr**(father in law)

* Condemnation of idol worship and polytheism

* Resistance and Opposition

Phase #2 (Medina, 622- 632)

* The Hijrah (Flight) in 622

* The growth of the Umma (body of the faith)

* Religious and political leader

* From Yathrib to Medina (City of the Prophet)

* Triumphal Return to Mecca (630AD)

- goes with an army of 10,000

* Conquest, the Ka'ba, and the Holy Cities of Islam

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Foundational Theology

5 Pillars of Islam

1. Shahadah (Declaration)- Testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger

2. Salat (Prayer)- Offering Salah five times a day

3. Sawn (Ritualistic Fasting)-

* Ramadan

4. Zakat (Alms)

5. Hajj (Pilgrimmage to Mecca)-

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Tenets of Islam

* Jihad (Struggle) More of an internal struggle (Good vs. Bad)

* Shari'ah Law and its foundations

- Quran- Islamic Bible

- Sunnah - collection of sayings from Muhammad

- Hadith - account of the life of Muhammad

* Examples of Shari'ah

- Gambling and Alcohol

- Pork

- Abstinence

- Polygamy

* The Ulama- teachers and legal experts

Priests for the religious faith

Also jurors

Law and Religion go hand in hand and overlap

Serve as judges and legal scholars

* The Madrasas- Islamic schools; all schools are religious

Where the ulama teach and where the new generation of ulama come to learn

Make society go... very important

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The Early Islamic Empire

- From the Umayyads to the Abbasids

Early Islamic History

* Muhammad's Death (632)

He had no son to take over. He did not chose an aire.

By the time he died, he was not only a religious leader, but a political leader as well

* The election of Abu Bakr (r. 632-634)-- one of the first converts of Muhammad

Election- elders chose him

Khalifat rasul Allah (successor to the messenger of God) ---became known as Caliph; leader of the faith

* Division among the Umma over Muhammad's succession

Not all agreed with this choose; he was not a blood relative of Muhhammad

* The Rashidun Caliphs (Rightly Guided)--- The first four

1. Abu Bakr

2. Umar

3. Uthman

4. Ali

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Conquest under the Rashidun

-defining term during their reign

Lots of expansion happening

* Tolerance of the Early Islamic Empire

When the army marched in to lands and fought battles, the didn't force them to change their cultures or make them convert

Generally, as long as they pledged allegience to the Caliph and pay a tax

* The jitza (tax)-- imposed on all non muslims

* Dhimmis (People of the book) --- got to pay less on taxes, but were giving special treatment

People that shared some same beliefs.

* Occupation and Economy

* The continuation of tribal divisions

This problem does not go away

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Coming Controversy

* The continuation of Tribal Divisions

*The Assassination of Uthman (3rd Caliph)

Tribal divisions--- Uthman becomes unpopular and is killed

* Ali ibn Abu Talib as Caliph 4th Caliph)

Abu Talib was Muhammad's uncle

That makes Ali 1st cousin to Muhhamad the prophet

Ali was almost his son in law of the prophet

- Hasan and Husayn (Ali's sons-- the prophets grandsons)

Most are now happy because the Caliph is a blood relative

* The Uthman Controversy and the rise of Muawiyah (Islamic general) -- (657)

Involved in the expansion of the Empire

Ruled over Syria on behalf of the Caliph

Uthman was his cousin--- therefore wanted the people that killed his cousin, and wanted revenge

Demanded that Ali bring his cousins assassination to justice

Ali isn't sure, but has a good idea who the murders were, but he was afraid that it would stir up the tribal divisions

Muawiyah rises up against Ali

* Civil War (57- 661)

* Ali's Assassination (661)--- making Muawiyah the next Caliph, and some of the tribes are unhappy again

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The Umayyad Dynasty

Key Issues After Ali:

1. Muawiyah's Dynasty --- sets it up t where when he dies, his son will be the next Caliph

* Yazid (his son)

2. Divisions in the Faith

* The Husyan Rebeliion (680)

happens in Yazid's first year reign. The whole of the Islamic community with rise up to follow you

* Martyrdom at Karbala (Oct. 10, 68)

Battle to place in modern day Iraq-- Karbala

faced army of 10,000

72 people of his own supporters showed up to fight

All were killed

* The birth of the Shi'at Ali (The Party of Ali) (Shi'a)

This group of muslims look at this as the most important moment in their theological views

every year, shi'a make a march to karbala on a pilgrimage

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Shi'a Islam Traditions:

1. A Descendant as Caliph

2. Seperate Theological Traditions

3. Additional Holy Cities

4. The centrality of Huayn's Martyrdom

5. Distinction from the Sunnah (Sunnis)--- the majority (orthodox muslims)

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Shi'a Theology and Traditions

* Twelver Shi'ism

believe that there have been 12 Imams

1. Ali ibn Abu Talib

2. Hasan ibn Ali

3. Husayn ibn Ali

12. Muhammad ibn al-

- Ismai'ilis (Seveners)--- believe there have been 7

- Zayidis (Fivers) --- believe there have been 5

* Shi'a Theology

1. God is God and cannot do evil

2. God gives man guidance through books of the prophets and through Muhammad

3. Man is supposed to follow the path of God but we have free will

Sunnies don't agree with the last 3

4. Sometimes humans need help, so God sends special (divine) guidance through the Imams

5. Imams come from the direct line of Ali and his wife (the Prophets daughter), Fatima

6. The Imams are pure and without sin

* The Mahdi-- the 12th Imam. Did not die, and went into hiding and will one day return to act as a savior

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A Brief History of the Ottoman Empire

The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

- A dynasty is born, handing control and reign to sons

Key Features:

1. Short Lifespan- 90 years

2. A New Capital- Damascus

3. Arab Domination- conquered ethnically different groups

* Weakness of the Mawali (non-arab Muslims)

- Top ranking political and military people were mostly Muslims

- Non-Arab Muslims were subbornated; were called Mawali

- Had nothing to do with religion, but ethnic differences

The Abbasid Revolution (747-750)

*Another new capital (Baghdad)

* A new family (dynasty) take control and come to power

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The Abbasid Caliphate (747- 1258)

Key Features:

1. Religiosity of the Caliph

- "The shadow of God on earth"

2. The rise of the non- Arabs

- persians and turks (ethnic groups) became part of the governing structure

3. A new governing structure

- The Islamic Empire had grown so large that the Caliph needed help in creating a governing structure

* The Vizier(s)- the right hand of the Caliph, at first only one, but soon grew to include multiple

* The Emirs- governors (known as other names later) of the seperate provinces

4. The integration of religion and society

* Shari'a (land of the law) no difference between religious law and society law

* Ijma- consensus the community

* Ijtihad- belief scholars had the ability to interpret the Quaran

- no seperation between church and state

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Ottoman Origins

* The Mongols and the Fall of the Abbasids (1258)

- invasions from all over

- massively from Asia

* Fragmentation of the Empire

- becomes a bunch of princapalities run by war lords

- almost becomes a wild west, and very tribal

* Osman Bey and the first "Ottomans" (1250)

- launch attacks on the Byznatine Empire

- religious war

* Osman's Gazi Warriors (Instruments of God)

- rapid success

* Territorial Expansion (1281-1371)

- takes over Syria, much of the Middle East, Southeastern Europe, and some North Africa

* Osman's Dynasty (The Ottoman Empire)

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The Ottoman Classical Age (1446- 1556)

* Mehmet II "the Conquerer" (1451- 1481)

* Targeting Constantinople

- major stop on the way between asia and europe

- one of the best situated ports in all the world

- trade and wealth

- strategic importance

- an economic prize

- the psychological effect

* The siege begins

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* Suleiman the Magnificent (1520- 1566)

* The height of Ottoman Power

- the siege of Vienna (1529)

- came close to taking it under control, but never actually won it

- Europe was terrified

The Ottoman Power Structure:

1. The Sultan and Caliph

* Served as Religious leader and political leader

2. Viziers

* high ranking state officals, prime minister

3. Pashas

* local governors

4. The Ulama

* priest class; teaching the law

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5. Shaykh al- Islam

* most important religious figures next to the Caliph

* in charge of appointing heads of schools

6. The Millet System and its limits

* product of the Empire being so diverse

* they tried to maintain stability

* tolerant of religious diversity

7. The Devshirme (boy levy)

* Tribal groups are still fighting and causing problems

* Go to the Balkans and kidnap Christian boys, convert them to Islam and train them to be government and state practices

* Not allowed to married

8. The Janissaries

* Boys that were kidnapped were also made into military members

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The Sick Man of Europe

The Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century

Gradual Decline

Reasons for decline:

1. The office of the sultan

- both religious and political leader

- all powerful

- when one person holds all the power. the state ebbs and flows

* The nature of absolutism

- extreme differences in rulers

* Succession Crises of the 16th and 17th centuries

- father to son (dynasty ran)

- When a sultan died, the princes fought amongst themselves to win the heir of Sultan

* Breeding intentional rivalry and killing all your siblings

* Suleiman

- responsible for overseeing one of his own sons

2. The Size of the Empire

* extends over 3 continents (Europe, Asia and Africa)

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Gradual Decline (continued)

3. The Rise of the Safavids

* Ismail Safavi (Ismail I) - founder

- claimed to be a descendant of Muhummad

* Uniting the forces of Shi'ism

* Ismail as Shah (title)

* The Battle for Iraq (1508- 1638)

- They serve as a rival to the Ottoman Empire

- Fight for Baghdad

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Ottoman Decline in the 19th Century

Key Factors:

1. External Issues- The Growth of European Wealth and Power

* The Age of Exploration and Discovery (16th and 17th centuries)

- Christopher Columbus

- Europeans colonized the New World

- Europe enriched itself through plunder and natural resources

* The Industrial Revolution (18th and 19th centuries)

- Began in Britain

- steam power, the railway, artillery, etc.

* The Ottoman Empire as a source of raw materials

- initally the industrial revolution helped the Ottoman Empire

- but it delayed their own industrial revolution

- their economy depended on European demand (boom or bust)

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2. The Capitulations (to give in or bow down to)

* Europe's Free Trade Agreement

- torn down trade barriers

- Europeans didn't have to pay fees or taxes to buy ottoman goods

* Loss of Revenue

- doesn't benefit the Ottomans

3. Political and Military Repercussions

* Corruption of the Devshirme

- lead to the sultan not being able to buy the loyalty of the Devshirme

- bribery

* Loss of military superiority

- can't pay for its military

* Economic decline and religious toleration

- limitation on tolerance

- tax increase on non Muslims

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Ottoman Struggles

* Defensive Developmentalism

- response of the Ottomans

- limiting or reversing its decline

- adapt and modernize or die

* The Tanzimat Era (est. 1839) and its limitations

- Europeanization-- have to become more like Europeans with economics and politically

- Constitution of 1878 (short lived)

- Military Reform--- being in officers rain the military

* Local Resistance

- opened secular schools--- this was a fundamental shift (not religious)

* The Debt Problem

- moderization costs money, and the Ottoman Empire doesn't have money

- they needed a bank loan to finance their own reforms which gives Europe an upperhand

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External Threats

* France: Napoleon's Invasion of Egypt (1798- 1801)

- wanted Egyptian resources

* Britain: The "Balancers of Power"

- Fearing Collapse and War

- Protecting India

- Russia and the Great Game

- The "Eastern Question"

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WWI Origins

Recap: Ottoman Empire decline

-industrialization, etc. changed the ottoman power source

- european's had trade priviledges

- ottoman leadership was behind

- development costs money

- ottoman's borrowed money from europe

External Threats

* France: Napoleon's Invasion of Egypt (1798- 1801)

* Britain: The Balancers of Power

- Fearing Collapse and war

- Protecting India

- The "eastern question"

- Britain was afraid that when the Ottoman empire collapsing european neighbors would gobble it all up

- And they would lose India (Crown jewel)

- Afraid of global war

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- The eastern question- keep the Ottoman Empire alive (British Policy)

* Russia: Pan- slavism and the battle for the straits.

-goal: control of the straits

-reason: access to the Mediterranean Sea (warm water)

-nationalism motivator

* The Crimean War (1853- 1854)

- wants to take over the Balkans; closer to the straits.

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notes

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The Ottoman Decision For War

Key Considerations:

1. Russia (arch nemesis)

2. Revitalizing the Empire through War

The Ottoman-German Alliance

The Early War Effort

* Enver Pasha as supreme Commander

* Assaults on the Russian Frontier

- The Causcas Mountains

After the Offensive

* Ottoman (General) Misconceptions

- thought the war was going to be quick and over by Christmas

* Universal Conscription and its impact

- enforced a draft, required to bring 3 days worth of food with you

* The Ottoman Empire Under Fire

Westerns believed that focusing all the troops on the western front was how they would win the war

- The Triumph of British 'Easterners'

(Winston Churchill, leading proponant for taking the war to the east)

- Justifications for the "Eastern Solution"

*Oil is a big motivator

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Churchill had a racial outlook on the Ottoman Empire as well

Gallipoli and After

* Britain's attack at Gallipoli (April 1915 to January 1916)

- Britain picked a bad spot to try and take on the Ottoman Empire

* Ottoman Planning

- "While the Turks dug in on the dominating heights British... entrenched on the beaches."

* Allied Casualties at Gallipoli

- 21,000 dead (british)

-54,000 injured (british)

* Churchill's Dishonor

- Many thought his career was over, forced to resign his position in the Navy

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The Arab Revolt

The Husayn- McMahon Correspondence (July 1915)

* Henry McMahon received a letter from Sharif Husayn, Emir of Mecca (1908)

- Husayn said he might be willing to switch sides in the war if you were willing to do something for me.

* Husayn's Ambitions

- him and his family are from the same tribe as Muhummad (Hashimite)

- he wanted a kingdom (an arab state)

- to be a dynasty

* Bold Claims

- claims to speak for the whole arab world

- says that the turk sultans don't speak for everyone

- says that the population of arabs have been itching to break away from the turks.

Britain's First Big Promise:

Britain agrees to Husayn's demands for his help and support

* The Arab Revolt Begins (June 1916)

* British Support

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* T.E. Lawrence "Of Arabia"- One of the British experts that is sent to help with the revolt

- started working with Husayn and his sons

* Sons of the Emir: Faysal (youngest) and Abdullah (oldest) (sons of Husayn)

* Advances of late 1916

* Limits of the Arab Revolt

* Edmund Allenby and the Assault on Damascus (1917) (Capital of the Caliphs)

* Faysal Stakes his claim

- Damascus is mine!

* British Assault of Baghdad (March 1917)

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A Thrice Promised Land

Promise 1: The Husayn- McMahon Agreement (1915-1916)

Promise 2: The Sykes- Picot Agreement (May 1916)

* A seperate agreement with the French

* The French didn't like the first promise that Britain gave to Husayn.

* Said that France and Britain would divide up the Middle East

* France would get Greater Syria (Modern Syria, Iraq)

* Britain would get most of Iraq and Jordan

* Israel (Jerusalem) would be an International control

* In direct contradiction to the first promise made to Husayn

Promise 3: The Balfour Declaration (November 1917)

* Arthur Balfour; The British view with favor (like the idea of) the establishment of a National home for the Jewish people in Palestine, without upsetting anyone that already lives in Palestine

* Contradictes both prior promises

Why was Palestine (the Holy Land) a special case?

1. Importance to Judaism- represents the promised land that God promised to Abraham

2. Importance to Christianity- birth place of Christianity

3. Importance to Islam- Gabriel took Muhammud to Jersalem on the "Night of Power" to the site of the Holiest of Holies where Muhammud accended to heaven

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The Birth of the "Modern Middle East"

-From San Remo to Churchill and the 40 Thieves

(MAJOR TURNING POINT)

Following WWI, the Ottoman Empire falls

-and the Middle East becomes (basically) what it is today, and we see the beginning of their Political system as seen today

- the 3rd promise has heavy influence over the change in the middle east at this point

The Birth of Zionism- outgrowth of anti-semitism

* Historic anti-semitism in Europe; from the 1400's and on...

* A National Home for the Jewish People; centuries of oppression

* Theodore Herzi (1860-1904); master mind behind Zionism... jewish man

* The World Zionist Organization (1897); find a safe place to set up a Jewish State

* No specific mention Palestine... yet

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Britain and the Balfour Declaration

* Why the Declaration?

1. Zionism and British Leadership

- Prime Minister (David Lloyd- George) - connection to the Zionist Organization

2. Jewish Influence in America? (Nov. 1917- climax of war); many believed that Jews had global influence

- many thought that Jews had heavy influence in America

- Many British leaders felt it was their religious duty to help the Jews get back to the Promise Land

- Britain also wanted to be careful of the decision in concerns with war

3. Britain's Strategic Interests

- If we can help make that happen, we will have a strong ally in the Middle East

- helps to protect Suez and India

Effects:

* Jewish Immigration to Palestine- thousands look to move because they believe that the British will help them get their own national state. 382,000 Jews live in Palestine by the end of the war

* A Thrice Promised Land- it all comes to a head because Britain has promised this land to 3 seperate groups of people

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The war ends in ally peace

- The Ottoman Empire and Russian are done

The San Remo Conference (April 1920)

The Treaty of Sevres (August 1920)

1. The Breakup of the Ottoman Empire

2. The Creation of New States

- Turkey

- Iraq (3 Ottoman provinces brought together)

- Greater Syria (Syria and Lebannon)

- TransJordan

- Palestine

* States were not giving their own independence; established as a Mandate (trusteeship) - inhabited by people not yet able to stand on their own. (League of Nations)

3. The A-B-C's of the Mandate System- ranking system of the people in terms of being able to govern themselves

* France- Syria

* Britain- Iraq, TransJordan and Palestine

The outcome of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire ultimately creates two new Empires in the Middle East

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The 40 Thieves

What about the Hashemites?

- sent Faysal (Husayn's son) out of Damascus

* The Cairo Conference (March 12, 1921)

- 40 british "experts" men gathered to decide what to do with the hashemites?

* Winston Churchill and the 40 Thieves

* The "Sherifian Solution"

- Husayn and the Hejaz

- Faysal and Iraq

- Abdullah and TransJordan

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Insert Jessica's notes from Friday

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Insert Josh's notes from Monday

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The Palestine Mandate

Britain's "Balancing Act" 1922-1939

Historical Analysis: "A small territory that had been inhabited by an Arab majority for some 1200 years was promised by a third party (Great Britain) as a national home to another people (the international Jewish community), the majority of whom lived in Eastern Europe."

The Story so far:

1. The artificial creation of the Palestine Mandate

2. The importance of Palestine (religious reasons)

3. The Balfour Declaration and the White Paper of 1922

-Palestine is a British colony

A national home: safe space (territory)

-different from a state: Jewish leadership, Jewish culture, and Jewish politics

4. Britain's Plan for a "Unitary State" and its failures

- council of elected officials (decision makers) of Christians, Muslims and Jews

- Arab's rejected it, felt like their homeland is being invaded by outsiders

- come to feel like there is an international grievance against the Arab Muslims

5. The 3 Communities of Palestine and their leaders

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Authorities in Palestine

1. The British Government (ruling body)

2. The Jewish Agency representing The Yishuv (Palestinian Jews)

- Weizmann and the World Zionist Organization

3. The Muslim Council representing Palestinian Arabs

- The Mufti Hajj Amin al- Husayni

- each of these communities on their own work within their own agency with the British government

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Key Organs other Jewish Agency

1. The Histadrut (Jewish Federation of Labor)

- kind of like a Labor Union

- job is to support Jewish businesses

- open doctor's offices, and insurance companies

- work on infastructure

- built banks and roads

2. The Haganah

- armed wing of the Jewish Agency

- to protect Jewish interest in Palestine

3. The Jewish Agency's Ties to the World Zionist Organization

- International Support and Connections

- fundraising and sends funds to the Jewish Agency

4. The Revisionists (Palestinian Jews that hold a different view on how to get a Jewish state)

- say that Jews should not trust the british

- Vladimir Jabotinsky (leader)

* Immigrant from Eastern Europe

- Beholden to the British

- Creating a Jewish Majority

* Said that the only way to get our state is to have such an influx of Jews to Palestine that Jews outnumbered the Arab's

- The Irgun

* Military force of the Revisionists

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Key Goals of the Yishuv

1. Immigration

2. Land Purchases

- Absentee Land-Owners- much of the land was owned by wealthy Arab's that didn't live on the land they owned, they have rented out their land to Arab peasants for them to live

- Zionist Land Purchases

* Jewish Immigration by the numbers

* Impact on the Arab Communities of Palestine

- Eviction- The Yishuv buy the land from the absentee land owners and kick out the people that are living on the land.

- Economic Hardships

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Egypt -From Veiled Protectorate to Independence

The Ottoman Empire falls after WWI, but Egypt did not become a mandate

A Long History with Britain (going back in time)

Review:

- Muhammad Ali and the Treaty of London (1841)- made Egypt in the 19th century really strong

* the British stopped Ali from advancing towards the Sultan

* but the British promised Ali a dynasty of Egypt

- The construction of the Suez Canal (1854- 1869)

* French project; started working with leader in Egypt. They wanted to connect the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea

* This cut the trip in half to get to Asia (India... important to Britain)

- Khedive Ismail (r. 1863- 1879)

- Ismail's Modernization Projects and Mounting Debt (1870's)

* built railways, bank, factories, etc.

* founded the University of Cairo

* He didn't have the funds to do all these projects

* Took Egypt's National debt from 3 million to 91 million

- Britain buys the Canal (1875)

* Ismail owned about 44% in shares in the Suez Canal, so he sells his shares

* Important: Britain owned the majority of the Suez Canal

* 80% of the freight that goes through the canal is British

* The canal is Britain's most valuable assest

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Egypt in Revolt:

* Rebellion in Egypt (1879): Ismail was deposed by the revolt

* The struck fear into the British; they feared the canal would be threatened

* British Invasion (1882); put down the rebellion; Ismail restored to his throne

* But the British on't leave, they have a continued presence, and try to govern Egypt

* Evelyn Baring (the chief British authority) and the Veiled Protectorate (what Egypt becomes known as)

- Egyptians called him The Lord

- Never officially claimed Egypt as a colony

* The unofficial British colony within the Ottoman Empire

* Adding Sudan (1883)- another rebellion broke out, and the British go and take it down

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Egypt and WWI

* Egypt was the command center for the British in the Middle East

* The center of Britain's Middle Eastern War Effort

* Egyptian struggles and frustrations

- The first of the food went to feed the soldiers, the rest was given to everyone else

- This is upsetting to the Egyptians because they are starving

- Their presence was disrupted

- Forced labor the Egyptians for the war effort

* The formation of the Wafd Party (1918)

- Sa'd Zaghlul- leader

- Group consisting of Egyptian nobility; wealthy landowners, and lawyers

- Group wants British out of Egypt

- They stand for Egyptian Independence

* Sa'd Zaghlul and the fellahin

- He tried to appeal to the peasants (fellahin)

- Made it a grassroots movements

- promised them change

- had the ability to talk to and charm the people

- WWI ends, and he wants in on the peace conference of Versailles

* Zaghlul's Arrest and Exile

* The outbreak of rebellion (1919): within days after his exile, rebellions erupt

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The Road to "Independence"

-In order to contain the revolts, the British allow him to go to the conference

- And they begin two years of negotiations (1920- 1922)

- Britain grants Egypt its "Independence" (with a catch) (1922)

Caveats to Independence

1. Defense

2. Military Presence

3. Capitulations

- Gave Britain special trade agreements

4. Foreign Policy

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"Independent Egypt"

Becomes a Constitutional Monarch

*The King is forced to share his power with the people

* Egypt's Liberal Experiment (1924- 1936)

- Wafd Victory and Zaghlul's Premiership

- Zaghlul becomes Prime Minister

- A first in Egyptian history

* The Anglo- Egyptian Treaty of 1936: want to rework the deal of 1922

- Limiting British military presence

- Largely same as 1922

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Egypt's Problems

1. The Powers of the King

- King Faud 1 (r. 1917-1936)

had power to fire or hire a Prime Minister

had power to close Parliament, which means that a new election cycle had to take place when it opened back up

if there was something that he didn't like, he would just change it

created political instability

2. Continued British Interference

3. Wafd Authoritarianism

almost a one party state

4. The Constant power struggle between king, party, and colonial power

5. Modernity vs. Tradition

(theme for the rest of the course)

Some in Egyptians are going to reject the modernizations

The Wafd force comes to modernize; though tend to undermine traditions

The Muslim Brotherhood

* Hasan Al-Banna and the Muslim Brotherhood (est 1928)

- The importance of Islamic Tradition: Brotherhood said that westernization wasn't for Egypt, needed to restore Islam to the root of the country.

* The Growth of the Brotherhood

- Support among the Fellahin (peasant class)

- Support among the students

* Wide- ranging appeal

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Ataturk's Turkey

Anatolia after the Treaty of Serves

The Fate of Turkey (1920-1922)

* The old heart of the Ottoman Empire

-Where the Sultan and the Caliphs lived

* Initial Provisions of the Treaty of Sevres

1. Colonial Division- among the French and Italian empires

2. An Independent Armenia- Becomes it own state

3. Territory for Greece- close to Istanbul

4. The Fate of the Straits- allied administration is in control of

5. More Capitulations- No taxes, no fees

Turkish Resistance

* "Societies for the Defense of Rights"- Turks didn't want to accept these terms and revolted. This group popped up strictly in resistance to the Treaty.

* Mustafa Kemal becomes this groups leader. Ethnically Turkish, although born in Southern Europe. Part of the turkish resistance against the British.

* Kemal is made President of this group on April 21, 1920

* The National Pact (January 1921)- Turkish people refuse the treaty, but they also weren't holding onto the land of the old Ottoman Empire. They only want a claim over Anatolia. A land for the Turks.

* The Lausanne Conference (November 1922) - Kemal holds his own conference to get everyone to come to an agreement.

- Consequences:

1. International Recognition- received recognition for Turkey from the international world

2. Abolition of the Sultanate- took away the Sultans title and power

3. The Fate of the Straits- stayed the same

4. Rejection of an Armenian State- that territory should be part of Turkey

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To Armenian Genocide

* Who/ Where were the Armenians?

Ethnically and Religiously different from the Ottomans. Mostly known as Christians.

* Increasing persecution in the 19th century

* Russian Intrigue in WWI

* Enver Pasha blames his failures on the Armenians

* The Armenian after 1914

1. Demobilization

2. Political Persecution (April 1915)

3. Deportation (May 1915)

4. Concentration Camps

5. Genocide: somewhere between 600,000 - 1 million Armenians killed out of 2.5 million Armenians in total

Aftermath

* International Attention. Limited Response

* Implications for today: still not offically recognized today

* The invasion of Armenia (1920)

* No Armenian State

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notes from Jessica (friday's class)

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Reza Khan's Reforms:

1. State-Building and Centralization - goal is to subdue the tribal groups

* Military Expansion- all males must serve

* Bureaucratic Expansion- hires more government workers

2. Iranian Nationalism- encouraged people to be "Iranian", all official language f the state became Persian

* The Pahlavi Cap; all officials wear this hat

3. Reducing Foreign Intervention- tried to make it look like he was less of a puppet controlled by the British government

* The Appointment of Ministers

4. Secularization- tries to modernize, adopts the French law code

* The Majles; Parliament

* Dress; removed laws that restricted women from showing their faces

* Gender Relations

* Education; allowed women to attend school

A Mixed Reception:

* Despotism

* Opponents of Reza Shah

- Ulama, Bazaaris, and Itelligentsia; ban together against foreign intervention

* The Anglo- Iranian Oil Company (1933-34)- Gives British free reign over Iranian oil

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Sharif Husayn

* Husayn as "King of the Hijaz"

Problems for Husayn:

1. Open Criticism of the British;

2. Husayn the "Traitor"?- Some in the Muslim world view him as a traitor because he betrayed his people and aligned himself with Britain during WWI. His participation in the War helped to make all of these things happen

3. Claiming the Caliphate (1924) and Islamic fallout; He claims the title of the Caliph, leader of Sunni Islam.

4. A "nuisance" to the British

IBN Sa'ud and the Wahhabis

Abd al-Aziz Sa'ud (1881-1953) and Wahhabism

* Origins: Muhammad ibn al- Wahhab (1703- 1792); was an Ulama

* Fundamentalism: a literal interpretation of the Koran; rejected translations and interpretations of the holy work

* The House of Sa'ud and the Wahhabis; pledged loyalty since its origin

* Centrality of the Koran and Hadith

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The Expansion of Wahhabism

Ibn Sa'ud's expansion (1902-1924)

* Tribal Chieftain and Warlord

* Uniting Arabs under a central ideology

* Treaty with the British (1915); Agreement made months before the Husayn- McMahon Agreement

* The Husayn- McMahon Agreement- What might have been?

* Assaults on Arabia

* Turning on the Hijaz and Britain's conflicted position (1924)

Ibn Sa'ud's Triumph

* The fall of Mecca and Medina (1924)

* Husayn Deposed

* The Treaty of Jiddah (1927); Recognized Ibn Sa'ud as King of Arabia

- Ibn Sa'ud's Restraint

- Jordan and the Gulf States

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The Kingdom

* The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (est 1932)

* A new capital; Riyadh

Pillars of State Authority:

1. Marriage Alliances; he produces 41 sons from various marriages

2. The Ikhwan; promised to give them (tribes) food, shelter, and goods. He wants to Nomadism... wants them to develop villages and towns. Easier to control and easier to convert them to Wahhabism. If and when soldiers were needed, they would fight for him.

* Settlement and Wahhabism

Key Features:

* Shari'ah Law

* Absolute Monarchy- No formal, written constitution (Koran and Sunna)

* Examples of Saudi Law; westernization was banned

* Rudimentary State Structure; stayed tribal and archaic

*Capital Punishment; murders are beheaded. Stoning and cruxification are still used

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Saudi Women

1. Guardianship Laws (the wali)

2. Educational Limitations

3. Marriage Restrictions (still arranged)

4. An absence of Justice

5. Clothing and the Abayas

6. The "Morality Police"; modesty must be maintained

7. Saudi Drivers; women could not drive until summer 2018

Saudi Oil

* Saudi Arabia with no oil (1924-1938)

* The search for oil (1920's)

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Syria and Transjordan (created as mandates)

Transjordan- smallest of the mandated territories

* The Transjordan Mandate- Size and Population

-largely desert

* Why Transjordan?

The term TRANSJORDAN means (across the Jordan)

- Palestine and the Balfour Declaration

Was originally supposed to be part of the Palestine agreement

The Arab communities are already not happy about the Balfour Declaration, so if the area of Transjordan was promised as part of Palestine, the British are worried about making the Arab people even more irritated

- The Sharifians, again

- A home for Abdullah

* Abdullah as Emir of Transjordan (March 1921)

* Adullah's familiar challenges

-outsider in his own land

-trying to create a national identity

-seen as a foreigner

* Abdullah, the Istiqlalis, (means independence) and their problems

1. Snubbing the locals (more upset by political governing than the religious aspet, because all were mostly sunni)

2. Corruption (hording money)

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Early Challenges

* Rejecting the Istiqlalis

* The tax Strike of 1921; tax rebellion breaks out

* British Intervention (1921- 1923); they bomb the nomadic tribes

* Abdullah's Crackdown (September 1923); starting arresting the top rebels, then exiled them to the Hijaz (his dad's kingdom), held and tortured

* British Intervention, Again (August 1924); demanded that the tribal leaders be released back to Transjordan

* A window into British thinking- Empire on the Cheap; the authority behind the scenes. The British people would not have been happy to be spending their tax dollars on a war in Jordan.

* British Ultimatums (1924)

1. The expulsion of the Istiqlalis

2. Financial Reform; get rid of the corruption, "financial irregularities"

* Significance; once Abdullah did the things that Britain had said, his problems pretty much go away

* Transjordan today; the King today is Abdullah's grandson

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Greater Syria

* A French Mandate; not British run

* French Interests in Syria

1. Historical Connections; Napoleon invaded in the last year of the 18th century

2. Interest in Christian Communities; The French vowed to protect the Christian rights and interests

3. Financial Investment; provided loans for roads and railways; conducted trade

4. Counter- balance British influence; the French is second to British in terms of influence over the world. The French wanted a piece of the pie too

World War I

* Britain's Promise to Husayn

* The Sykes- Picot Agreement, Again

* The Rise and Fall of Faysal's Kingdom in Syria (1918-1920); Faysal took control of Damascus

* French Intervention- The March on Syria (July 24, 1920); Then the French kicked Faysal out of Syria

French Policy in Greater Syria

* "Divide and Rule"

* The diversity of Greater Syria; much was Sunni. But also contained Christian groups, as well as Shi'ia; promoted regional and ethnic fragmentation.

* The Creation of Greater Lebanon (1920)

Diversity

1. The Maronites; Catholic Christians

2. Sunni Muslims

3. Alawites; secret sect of Islam; the President of Syria from 1970 to today is an Alawite

4. Druze

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World War II Part 1

The Middle East 1936-1942

(The broad scope of how the war will affect the Middle East)

The Palestine Mandate

Key Issues:

* The Balfour Declaration (1917); The British wanted to set up a national home for Jews in Palestine

* Jewish Immigration; increased rapidly through the 1920's

* Absentee land ownership and its social ramifications; Jews wanting to own land in order to establish this promise of the Balfour Declaration. Jews bought up land from land owners that had been renting their land. And then the Jews would evict the Arabs that lived on the land.

Communal Violence in the Inter-War Period:

* The Wailing Wall Disturbances (August 1929); There are issue that come up concerning who has access to the wall (used for praying) and when.

* The General Strike and Arab Demands; There was this increasing issue between the Arabs and the Jews. Constant and continual growing violence. In 1936, a small group of Muslims captured a bus of a few dozen Jews and some of them were killed. In which, the Jews revolted and fought back. This is when the Arab Muslim government system decided on a general strike. The supreme Muslim council called for Arab Muslims to stop working and force Britain to intervene

1. Restrictions on Jewish immigration

2. Stop Jewish land acquisitions

3. Democracy in Palestine

* The Second Arab Revolt

* The Peel Commission: Unworkable and in need of Partition; Peel (British representative) came in and said that no one is happy, and this is not working, the way things are now. So we need to split up Palestine. A section for Arab Muslims, and a section for the Jews. Both sides rejected this plan.

* Assaults on the British (July 1937)

* British Intervention; sent 20,000 soldiers to Palestine. Made mass arrests. British force was eventually able to suppress the revolt

* The White Paper of 1939 and the End of the Revolt; issued a policy statement saying, "HMG therefore now declare unequivocally that it is not part of their policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State." Then they placed a cap on the number of Jews that could move to Palestine, at the height of the coming Holocaust, Britain turned its back on the Jews and did not give them a safe place to call home.

"Jewish leadership vowed to fight the White Paper as if there were no war; and to fight the war as if there were no White Paper."

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Iran and World War II

Review: (Being ruled by the Pahlavi; Shah Reza Khan was in control and he wanted to modernize. Iran was technically independent, but was under the thumb of the British)

* Declaration of Iranian Neutrality (1939); Iran didn't want any part in the war

* The Anglo- Soviet Invasion (August- September 1941)

Why?

1. Britain's need for oil

2. The Soviet supply line; this was where and how the U.S. could supply the Soviet Union with aid and supply to help them change the tide of the war against the Germans.

3. Reza Shah's Modernization and the War; all of these reforms made it easy to funnel these things throughout the land too

* Reza Khan's forced Abdication (August 1941)

* The Succession of his son, Muhammad Reza Shah; the British thought he would be easier to control than his father

* The Division of Iran- North and South

- Soviet Union- North

- Britain- South

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Egypt and World War II

Review: Egyptian "Independence" (1922)

The Anglo- Egyptian Treaty (1936)

* Egyptian Neutrality (1939)

* The War in North Africa (June 1940 to 1942)

* Mussolini, the Desert Fox, and Suez; Rommel (Desert Fox) lead another attempt with Mussolini, and still was unable to capture the Suez Canal.

* The Pivot of Britain's Middle Eastern Defense... Again!; Egypt becomes the military base for Defense

* Egypt's Economic Struggles; because there are so many soldiers stationed on Egyptian soil, food and supplies goes straight to the soldiers and leaves the average Egyptian hunger and living without basic needs.

* King Faruq's new Minister (February 4, 1942); appoints a pro Nazi Prime Minister. The British was not going to let that happen. The British said we can remove you. And they did.

* British Invasion

* Re-visiting Egyptian Independence

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Iraq and World War II

Review: Iraq's many challenges; the ultimate case study of the mistakes made in the middle east; it was a mandate under the British Empire. Made Faysal a king, who was a foreigner

* Iraqi "Independence" (1936); Britain forced them to sign a treaty that gave the British unfair advantages

* King Faysal (died 1933)

* The death of King Ghazi (1939); Faysal's son took over after his fathers death. Then he died n a car crash; at the time, his son was only 3 years old.

* The emergence of the Golden Square (1940); military officials emerged to take charge, and rose up against the government, and over through the Monarchy. Then threw their support to Rashid Ali (politician who was a Nazi sympathizer)

* The Rashid Ali Revolt (April 1, 1941)

* British intervention. Why? (May 1941)

1. Pro- Axis Orientation

2. A Military Disagreement

* Construction of the Basra Air Base; Iraq doesn't want the base. Sent the Iraqi armies to surround the British in the construction site.

* Invasion and Re-Conquest (May 1941); Britain had had enough; so Britain invaded and re- conquered Iraq.

World War II, Part 2

Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey

The War in Europe

* The Nazi Invasion of France (May 10, 1940)

* Paul Reynaud's bad omen (May 19) ; leader of the French government. He knew that France would fall to Hitler, so he called for a Mass to be held in Notre Dame, and prayed to the saints for salvation from the Nazi's. Reynaud then stepped down.

* Marshal Petain takes charge; 84 years old, most well know French General. He too believed that France would fall. He felt it would be better to surrender

* The collapse of France (June 10); the French government ran away

- "The government must leave the capital due to compelling military considerations."

* Surrender (June 25, 1940)

* Two French States- Occupied and Vichy

* The Free French; group that vowed to fight against the Nazi's

What does this have to do with the Middle East?

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Syria

Review: French control of Greater Syria

* British intervention (Spring/Summer 1941); they come in and defeat the Vichy

* Another. British. Promise.; "When we liberate you from the Vichy, we will grant you your independence"

* Syria, Lebanon, and the Free French; the Free French show up in Syria after Britain made its promise. And they establish their control over Syria

- Charles DeGaulle; leader of the Free French

* Free French Rule to 1943; allowed Syrians to hold free elections and choose their own government

Lebanon

* "Born Schizophrenic"- A Review of Diversity; ethnic and religiously diverse

*Lebanon, France, and the Maronites; The French wanted to keep all of this ethnic group disconnected from one another. And the French put the Maronite Christians in charge. The Maronites wanted Lebanon to be the Christian home in the Middle East.

* The Arab Community and Maronite Fears; Arabs believed differently. Sunni Arabs wanted Lebanon to be another Arab State. The Maronites were afraid of it becoming an Arab state because they would become a minority

* Sunni Opposition

* Lebanon and the war; same as greater Syria

* The National Pact (1943); settlement between the Sunni's and the Christians. A bridge to help these communities to work together

* Provisions of the Pact

1. Christian Identity; The Arab's agreed to recognize the Maronites as a significant community of Lebanon

2. Arab Identity; Maronites agreed to recognize that Lebanon was part of the Arab world (ethnically) so longer as the Sunni stopped their pursuit of making Lebanon part of a larger Arab state

* Political Organization and the Census of 1932; for every 6 Maronites, there was 5 Sunni Muslims. They wanted their Parliament to mirror those numbers

* The Cabinet; also meant to mirror these numbers. The President was always to be a Maronite, and the Prime Minister was always to be a Sunni. So to did the Shi'ia, Druze, ect.

* Longevity (1975); 30 years this Pact works in peace. Until Civil War breaks out.

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The Palestine Mandate

Review

Key Issues:

1. Immigration

* Numbers; a third of the population in the beginning of WW2 were Jewish. By the year after the war ended, Jewish population doubled.

2. Land

3. Communal Violence

* The Arab Revolt (3 years)

4. British Intervention

* The White Paper of 1939: "HMG therefore now declare unequivocally that it is not part of their policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State."

* Britain says (to appease the Arabs), No more than 75,000 Jews over the next 5 years can move/immigrate into Palestine

* The Jewish response to Britain's decree, "Fight the White Paper as if there was no war; fight the war as if there was no White Paper."

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Jewish Vigilance

Jewish Participation in the British War Effort

The Jewish people knew they had two enemies; the Nazi's and the British. But they knew that the Nazi's were their greatest enemy. And they had to defeat them first. So a vast majority of the Yishuv (the Palestinian Jews) joined the ranks of the British army, so that they could help defeat the Nazi's

* Important Point 1: Fighting Experience; this provided the Jews with the military fighting experience, and learned the ends and outs of the British Military

* Important Point 2: Arming the Yishuv (the Jews)

The Emergence of Lehi (The Stern Gang)

* Abraham Stern and the Yishuv's real enemy; thought that Britain was the real enemy. They could have provided a Jewish home for Jews and an escape from the Nazi's

* Stern does the unthinkable (1940); Reached out to the Nazi's and offered their support and help if the Nazi's would throw their support behind providing a Jewish home in Palestine

* German Rejection and the Stern Gang's Isolation; The Nazi's said no. The rest of the Jewish community then saw him as a radical crazy person

Jewish Terrorism

The Stern Gang's Violence

* Attacks on British positions in Palestine

* The death of Abraham Stern (Feb. 1942)

* The Assassination of Lord Moyne (November 6, 1944); highest ranking British official in the Middle East, his job was to enforce the White Papers of 1939. He was seen as the guy that was keeping the Jews out of Palestine. He resided in Cairo. Stern gang killed him. Then the Stern Gang men responsible were tried and hanged for their crimes

* Terror Through Assassination; This was the Stern Gangs M.O.

* "Radical outliers"

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Terror out of Zion

The Irgun (Revisionists)

* Origins: The Arab Revolt (1936); created to protect the Yishuv communities from the Arabs

* Menachem Begin; leader from Poland; driven out of their home by the Nazi's. Joined the Polish resistance and eventually the S.U. red army. (FUTURE PRIME MINISTER OF ISRAEL)

* Breaking the "Truce" (1944); this is where they turned violent. The Irgun realized hat the tide of the war was changing. They can see that the Germans will be defeated. They jump the gun a little, and turn their attention to the British

* The Irgun's Tactics; attacked office building, communications, the British army

The Haganah

* Militant Wing of the Jewish Agency ( The Yishuv Army)

* The Haganah at the end of the war (ready to mobilize)

Palestine After the War

* Britain's Dual Struggles:

1. Britain could not support a Jewish National Home in Palestine without alienating Arab majority

2. Britain could not impose a settlement acceptable o the Arabs without alienating their wartime Allies

* The United States, the Holocaust, and the Question of Palestine

* Europe's Displaced Persons Camps; all the Jews that remained alive were homeless. So displaced persons camps were created.

"We appear to be treating the Jews as the Nazi's treated them except that we do not exterminate them..."

* Harry Truman and the 100,000; thought that if the Jews wanted to go to Palestine, let them. He demanded that Britain lift the White Papers of 1939. But then this ticks off the Arab communities. So Truman said let 100,000 Jews go to Palestine NOW.

* Britain's Strategic Concerns; Britain is caught in this vicious circle. Britain relied on the US at the end of the war because they were on the brink of collapse

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Review:

3 key groups among the Yishuv

1. The Stern Gang (Radical Outliers)

2. The Irgun (Militant Moderates)

3. The Haganah (The Militant Wing of the Jewish Agency)

Terror out of Zion

* The Yishuv's Campaign of Violence- The Haganah Get Involved

- Night of the Bridges (June 16, 1946); blew up bridges throughout Palestine as a means to force Britain's hand; all of the 3 Yishuv groups were involved. But the Haganah kept their involvement a secret

* The British Response

- Operation Agatha (June 1946); goal was to cut off the head of the snake. Capture as many of the Yishuv leaders as possible, and arrest them.

- Incriminating Evidence; had found some documents that belonged to the Haganah that showed that they had been involved in the Night of the Bridges.

* The King David Hotel Bombing (July 22, 1946); site of the British quarters. 100 people were killed and wounded in this attack. Several British officials were killed in the bombing

* To the United Nations (Feb. 1947); Britain took the Palestine Mandate to the United Nations. Because they could not figure out how to work this situation and fix the conflict.

Seeking and International Solution

The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP)

* The Arab Position on UNSCOP; rejected the committee and refused to be of help. They thought that at the very least the UNSCOP outcome would be that they would create a Jewish state (home) in Palestine, and they had already rejected this idea for a decade.

* The Jewish Position on UNSCOP; exact opposite. Now was their time to make their case to get a Jewish home.

Deteriorating Conditions in Palestine:

1. The assassination of British soldiers (July 1947); The Stern Gang kidnapped British soldiers because the British had planned on killing a couple of Jewish terrorists. The Stern Gang proposed a swap. Britain refused. Britain went ahead and killed the terrorists, so the Stern Gang too killed the captured British soldiers in the middle of the street.

2. The Exodus Affair and it's return to Germany (July- August 1947); 4,054 Jewish on board (the Exodus) heading for freedom in Palestine. As the boat tried to make port in Palestine, but a British battle cruiser stopped them, then boarded and tear gassed them. They demanded the boat turn around and go back to the south of France. Once they make it to port, the people on board refused to debark. So the boat was then redirected to Germany. British soldiers and German police forced all of the people off the ship.

3. Significance and Fallout

The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP)

* War Weariness and the British Public

* The UNSCOP Report (Fall 1947)

- Partition and Independence; one part Jewish, one part Arab Muslim

- Jewish Acceptance; Arab Rejection

- The "New Map" of Palestine; Jerusalem should be internationally governed

> 56% of the land was to go to the Yishuv (500, 000 jews living to almost 500,000 arabs)

> 42% of the land was to go to the arabs (818,000)

* Ilan Pape's Assessment

* Britain Announces its Plans (September 1947, May 15, 1948); leaving the Palestine Mandate to the UN

* The UN General Assembly (November 1947); 13 voted no, 10 didn't vote

* American Support for UNSCOP

* Results of the vote

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Inter- Communal Violence

* Jockeying for Territory: Virtual Civil War in Palestine

* The Superiority of Haganah forces; had fought against the Nazi's and Britain had allowed them to train

* Shortage of Resources for the Arabs; basic resources included arms and ammunition

* Continued Jewish Terrorism; assassination and destruction of buildings

* The Massacre of Deir Yasin (April 9, 1948); Palestinian Arab village, (poor, very small), agricultural mainly; Stern Gang forces marched into this village, and started open firing on the village. Only 85 Palestinian Arabs were able to resist. 110 villagers died. out 750 total population

- The Stern Gang

- Toll

Review

*Jewish Terrorism

* The UN Special Committee on Palestine (1947)

- Partition and Independence; the most fertile and prosperous land went to the Jewish

- The outbreak of Inter- Communal Violence; Sept 1947 British leaves Palestine which caused the Arabs and Jews to start jockeying for the controlling force.

- Ilan Pape's Assessment

Inter- Communal Violence

3 Consequences of Deir Yassin:

1. International Condemnation, Jewish Denial

2. Mass Palestinian Exodus

3. Arab Reprisals

* Plan Dalet (Plan "D"): "Provided for the conquest and permanent occupation, or leveling, of Arab villages and towns"; A part of the Yishuv that went out to forcefully removing the Arabs from the land that had been promised as the new Jewish State. (1947-1948)

* Plan "D" as Ethnic Cleansing?

- "Plan "D" called for their (Palestinians) systematic and total expulsion from their homeland."

* The Assault of Haifa (April 1948); Israel's most important port and contained the largest oil system

* The British Retreat (May 14, 1948); left Palestine

* The Declaration of the State of Israel (May 14)

* Not the end of the story- foreshadowing of the Arab- Israeli war of 1948

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UNSCOP and The Arabs

The Arab Position in 1947- 1948

1. Dismantling of the Supreme Muslim Council (1936); Arabs didn't have the resources or military training, but also didn't have the political pull either. When the Arab Revolt broke out in 1936, Britain had arrested most of the leaders of the council. And then disbanned it. This is what led to the disadvantage of the political pull with Britain. Whereas the Jewish Agency had that.

2. A Refusal to Participate in UNSCOP

3. The Arab League (est. 1945); Arabs didn't had local representation. So a group of Arab Palestinians spoke up on behalf of likeminded Arab countries. "A clear affirmation that these countries and domains were members of a larger Arab system in which all the constieunts...." Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebannon, Trans Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen, and Arab Palestinians

* The Alexandria Protocol: Purpose and Commitment; This was what the Arab league proposed in order to get Arab states to work together.

* Stance on Palestine; rejected the Jewish state within Palestine

The Arab- Israel War

* The Outbreak of War (May 15, 1948); All the states surrounding Palestine

* The Meaning of the War for Arab Nations

Key Problems in War:

1. Poor preparation and why?; Arabs were not ready for a fight; Most of these states had just gained their independence

2. Superior Israeli Armaments and Training

3. Israeli Superiority of Numbers; Lebanon only gave 3500 soldiers... 25,000 soldiers in total Arabs against 30,000 of the Israel state.

4. Battle for Survival; this conflict would decide the future of Israel and the Israeli state

5. Poor Cooperation

* King Abdullah's Machination (Hashemite, controlled Jordan) ; he wants to benefit from the war. He wants the territory that the UN promised to the Arabs (of Palestine)

* Secret Discussions with the Yishuv for (1) Non- Aggression and (2) Annexation of Arab Palestine (1947); Before Palestine's borders were defined by UNSCOP, Abdullah was meeting with the Yishuv to discuss the future fallout of the state of Israel.

* Negotiations with Britain (Feb. 1948); Abdullah and the Yishuv on board with Abdullah's plan. Britain agreed as long as they didn't invade the land for the Jews.

- "Annexation seems the obvious thing to do, but do not go and invade the areas allotted to the Jews." (Rogan)

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Review:

* The Arab- Israeli War of 1948; fallout after Britain left the mandate; declaration of the State of Israel; war declared the next day

* Arab struggles during the war

1. Poor preparation and why?

2. Superior Israeli Armaments and Training

3. Israeli Superiority of numbers

4. A battle for survival

5. Poor Cooperation; the Arab states were so far disconnected, that once they declared war on the Jewish state in Palestine, but they are more at war within themselves than the Jewish state.

The Arab- Israeli War

Key Issues:

1. Transjordan's real motivations in 1948

2. The Arab League's Understanding

* Abdullah as "Supreme Commander"; none of the other Middle East states listen to him because they are also working to defeat him

3. Hajj Amin al- Husayni and Iraq; Head of the Supreme Muslim Council until the Arab Revolt. Had fled when Britain disbanned the Supreme Muslim Council. Possible leader for an independent Arab State.

* The Rashid Ali Coup revisited (1941); spurred British intervention during the war. Pro Nazi

Goals of the Arab League:

1. No Israel

2. No Jordanian Annexation

3. No Amin al- Husayni

* "With such war aims, it is no surprise that the Arab forces found themselves overwhelmed..." (Rogan)

Phase 1 of the war (May 15 to June 11, 1948)

* Assault on all fronts; Syria and Lebanon invade from the North, Iraq invades from the East, Jordan invaded to the west, and Egypt invaded from the South.

* Heavy Losses and the First UN Intervention

* Ceasefire (May 29)

* Israeli Reinforcements; grew their army and drafted everyone they could into the Israeli Army. Also got a shipment of arms. After the ceasefire, the Israeli army is bigger and better gunned.

Phase 2 of War (July 9 to July 19)

* Israeli Offensive

* The Refugee Crisis Worsens; Palestinian Arabs flee into Jordan. Turns from war to a humanitarian issue.

* Another UN Intervention and the Second Ceasefire (July 19); decided to do more research because they realized the UNSCOP plan wasn't working

* The assassination of Count Folke Berndotte (September 16); Swedish man who was hired to go to Palestine to write a report for new alternatives. Killed by Jewish Terrorists from the Stern gang

* The collapse of Arab Unity; any common aspirations shattered by two months of war.

* The resumption to war (Oct. 14)

Phase 3 of War (October 15 to November 5)

* Israeli Offensive, again

* The Fate of Syria and Lebanon

* Israeli Assaults on Egyptian Forces

* Israel Crosses the Border (December 1948)

* Insult to Injury- Egypt Appeals to the British (because of the Treaty)

* Egyptian Withdrawal (January 7, 1949)

* Israeli Assault on the Negev; produces new map and new borders; Israel gains significant territory in Israel/Palestine

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The Arm. Agreement

Egypt (Feb)

Lebanon (March)

Transjordan (April)

Syria (July)

Iraq (August)

Key Settlements/ Conclusions

* The Gaza Strip

* The West Bank and the establishment of Jordan

* al- Nakba;

- The Refugee Crisis; a third of the population flees

Review

The Arab-Israeli War of 1948

* Arab Goals/ Struggles during the war

1. No Israel

2. No Jordanian Annexation

3. No Hajj Amin al-Husayni; they want to prohibit him from having any say in the matters of Israel

* "With such war aims, it is no surprise that the Arab forces found themselves overwhelmed..." (Rogan)

* The New Map of Israel; expanded on Israeli territory within Palestine

* Al- Nakba; the disaster

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After The Nakba

1. Jordan

* the best placed after the war; not entirely negative, somewhat of a positive outcome

* growing population; had annexed Jordan/Palestine, grow by 900,000

* quantity and quality; many were doctors, lawyers and teachers

* controlling east Jerusalem; control of the west bank and old Jerusalem; the Hashimites are now in control of an Islamic holy territory

* secret diplomatic recognition of Israel;

* treasonous Abdullah? Agreed to make this recognition if Jordanians could gain access to the port of Haifa (economic outreach) Working with Israel made him a traitor. Supporting

* Assassination (July 16, 1951) Gunned down by a 21 year old. The assassin was killed on the spot. Shot in front of his grandson who would become King

* International Intrigue; the assassin was part of secret group consisting of Amin al- Husayni

2. Syria

The overthrow of President Shukri al- Quwatli (March 1949)

The 150 days of Husni al- Za’im; offered to give Israel so much of what it wanted for a few things in return. Syria won’t view you as an enemy, offered diplomatic recognition, offered open borders, economic cooperation (trade deals)

Secret Negotiations with Israel

Normalization of relations

Recognition

Open borders

Economic cooperation

300,000 refugees

Border change

Syria just wanted the land around the Sea of Galiee (the Golden Heights)

David Ben- Gurion’s (leader of Israel) rejection; he didn’t want to set the precedent of giving up land for peace terms.

Harry Truman and US Intervention; wanted to encourage Ben-Gurion to rethink this offer

The James Keeley Meeting; sent on behalf of the US to go back to Syria to get them to try again with Israel

Adil Arslan (Foreign Ministers) and his “discovery”; man that Keeley met with. But Arslan had no idea of the offer al- Za’im had made with Israel.

The overthrow of al-Za’im (August 14, 1949)

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3. Egypt

Review: The Muslim Brotherhood; wanted Egypt to be an Arab state. Based on Islam.

The Brotherhood and its supporters

Hasan al- Banna and al- Nakba; the reason for all the bad things is because we have adopted non Islamic ideals (western ideas), and the only way to fix this is to go back to Islamic traditions. After the Nakba, they have the loudest voice. Speaking out against the government

Banning the Brotherhood (December 8, 1948); declared them illegal. Forced them underground. Still active today, but underground.

The Assassination of Mahmud Fahmi al- Nuqrashi (December 28, 1948); member of the Brotherhood shot and killed the Prime Minister

The Murder of Hasan al- Banna (February 12, 1949); by order of the Egypt King, the leader of the Brotherhood gunned down and killed.

Significance

Preparing for Future Conflict; the defeated Arab states refused to accept Israel and the loss of Palestine

Humanitarian Crisis and the Palestinian Search for statehood; 750,000 refugees fled the Palestine Mandate; today over 4 million people

The Impact on Arab Politics

Arab Nationalism and its discontents; the falllout of the Nakba, caused Arab Nationalism. Arab failure is based on not working together.

“Despite its negative impact on Arab nationalism in the short-term, the war in Palestine ended up being a major catalyst for the dramatic resurgence of Arab Nationalism in the 1950’s.”

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The Cold War

The Essence of the Cold War

1. An Ideological Conflict; between the 2 new super powers after the second World War. France was no longer a great power because they were under Nazi occupation. Britain was the only country to fight the second WW and live to tell the tale. But they were weakened and depended greatly on the United States. Japan, Italy and Germany all defeated. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the largest powers in the world. The Soviet Union was communist and the United States was democratic, belief of civil liberties. Fundamentally they did not agree on each other's way of life.

2. The Perception of Aggression; Both sides viewed the other as aggressive and dangerous.

* The United States viewed the Soviet Union and communism as something that would eventually spread, but also doomed to fail. The Soviet Union viewed the US the same way. But they also viewed the US as a new imperial power.

3. A Conflict for Resources; oil

4. World Polarization- First, Second, and Third-World Countries; The term "Third World Country" was born out of the Cold War. IN which represents a country that did not want to align themselves with the Soviet Union or the United States.

The Cold War and the Middle East

* A region of Strategic and Geopolitical Importance; passage way between Europe and Asia. (trade routes) sea ports.

* Oil; not discovered until 1930's. But the war stalled its expansion.

* Soviet and American Oil in its proper context (1950's) US produced 63% of the world's oil. SU produced 11% of the world's oil.

* The lessons of World War II; we cut off the Nazi's Oil Supply. Both the US and the SU recognized that the oil supply was extremely vital to the success of the Military. So they both became aware of that oil importance for themselves as the US and the SU become opponents.

American Cold War Strategy:

* The US policy of containment; lets build a theoretical wall so that communism can not spread any further

* The Emergence of Domino Theory; if one country in a region falls to communism then the entire region is under the threat of communism.

The First Battleground of the Cold War?

* Iran: A review; the Pahlavi is the ruling family. Britain and the SU replaced the Pahlavi power from Reza Shah and gave the land of Iran to his son. They were afraid that Iran would fall to the Nazi's. When they invaded, they said when the war is over, we will leave and turn Iran back over to the Pahlavi family.

* Temporary Occupation during WWII; the Soviet Union did want to leave and began looking for oil in North Iran.

* Soviet Union's Secret Studies (Fall of 1945); looking for oil in the North

* Intrigue in Azerbaijan; this region of people wanted to break away from Iran. The Soviets sent in people to stir up trouble and get them angry. Then used that tension in Northern Iran as a means to stay.

* Soviet Refusal to Leave and the Contiuation of Foreign Meddling;

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Key Iranian Takeaways:

1. The Shah's Struggles and the future of the Iranian Government (1945-46); how to rebuild the government

2. Persistence of Foreign Meddling

3. Iran, the United States, and the Cold War policy of Containment; the United States was worried about Soviet involvement. So the US becomes wholly dedicated to stopping the spread of Communism.

Political Developments in Iran

* The Socialist Movement in Iran and the Tudeh Party (1941-1949); Socialist party

- Iraj Iskandari

- Anti- Imperialism and Anti- Authoritarianism; freedom from Foreign meddling, want to appeal to the masses of Iranians, create social reform for the good of the people.

- Party Growth; rapid growth through the late 1940s. 50,000 Iranians 100,000 supports. won the allegiance of the trade unions

- Pushing Iranians Labor Laws; 8 hour work day, 6 annual paid holidays, insurance, unemployment pay, minimum wage, more child labor laws, more workers unions

Political Development in Iran

* The Nationalist Movement;

* Mohammad Mossadeq's Platform; he was not a socialist

1. Iranian Sovereignty (Oil Nationalization); eliminating foreign meddling; oil was the key

"Mossadeq insisted that Iran had the inaleinable right to have full control over Oil Production..."

2. Democracy;

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Iran in the Cold War

Part 2

Review:

The Cold War Context

The US Strategy in the Cold War; containment, domino theory

Geopolitics and Oil

Continued Foreign Meddling in Iran

What kind of Iran? Will it be ruled by a King? A shah? Or the people?

The Tudeh Party- Socialism, Anti- Imperialism, and Popularity

Political Development in Iran

The Nationalist Movement

Mohammad Mossadeq’s Platform

Iranian Sovereignty (Oil Nationalization) Anglo- Iranian Oil Company; a British company. This is what he fights against. We take control of our own oil.

Democracy; wants to limit the power of the shah and empower the parliament

Mossedeq’s Reputation; sparkling. Impeccable honesty.

The National Front (1949); gained wide ranging support from the majority of Iranians

The General Strike (April 1951); mobilizes his supporter to take over their own oil. He called for those specifically working in the oil industry to stop working.

Nationalization of Iranian Oil (May 1951); this gets the shah’s attention

The Rise of Mossadeq; the shah made him Prime Minister

The National Iranian Oil Company; what they changed the name to

British Retaliation; used their Navy to create a blockage so that exports of oil were stopped. Also froze their foreign accounts

Mossadeq Before the United Nations; defended Irans position, also breaking diplomatic ties with the British

Mossadeq and Control over the Military; he could easily overpower the Shah, so he limited the power of the Shah over the Military. This pushes the shah too far

The National Uprising (July 1952); 3 day strike consisting of Iranian people on behalf of Mossadeq until….

The Shah backs down

The Creation of a Constitutional Committee (1953); he called together a committee to rewrite the Constitutional. He wanted it to be a Democratic Republic, and get rid of the Shah all together.

The Overthrow of Mossadeq

British and American Intervention

Why?

Oil

The Cold War- Mossadeq and the Tudeh

A CIA and MI6 joint venture (est. 1952); the US foreign agency worked with the British foreign agency to begin the demise of Mossadeq

The role of Kermit Roosevelt; son of Teddy. Sent ahead to warn the Shah that the US and the British were organizing a revolution and the Shah was okay with it because his position was guaranteed

The Coup (August 19, 1953); the US supplied 30 tanks to an Iranian general. 300 people died in the coup. Mossadeq was arrested and spent 3 years in Jail, then house arrest for the rest of his life

Mossadeq’s Fate

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Immediate Outcomes

Destruction of the National Front and Tudeh Parties

Restoration of the Shah

Continued Foreign Domination of Iranian Oil

Continued Iranian Frustrations; the people blamed the Shah and the Military.

The Coup of 1953 undermined the majority of Iranians view of the US.

Muhammad Reza Shah’s White Revolution

The Military

The Shah as Supreme Commander

SAVAK; creation of a new wing of the military; the Shah’s secret police (5,000 agents at any given time) Censored media, schools. Used to terrorize any opposition

The Bureaucracy; grew the bureaucracy. Was able to reach the rural and tribal parts of Iran. Centralized his control over the countryside for the first time in history.

The Court Patronage System; state sponsored corruption

The Shah’s Growing Wealth; 1 billion dollars to 20 billion

Muhammad Reza Shah’s White Revolution

Land Reform; took land away from the wealthy and redistributes it to the poor

Industrialization; increased industries

Education; no more than 15,000 kids enrolled in the 50s to ??? Literacy went up

Upper classes; Shah’s family, military, and wealthy land owners (extreme minority)

Middle classes; bizaries (business owners), doctors, lawyers, teachers (13% of population)

Urban Working classes; twice the size of the middle class

Rural Population; 40% of the labor force. Largest. Poorest of the poor

Consequences:

Increased the Number of the Shah’s Opponents

Absence of Political Representation

Widening Socio-Economic Gaps;

Raising (but not meeting) expectations; the revolution gives people hope for change for the better, but it never happens.

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Egypt

The birth of Nasserism

Review:

* Construction of the Suez Canal (1875); connected the Mediterraean Sea to the Red Sea. Also became a trading port

* British Occupation of Egypt (1882)

* Egyptian "Independence" (1922)

* The Anglo- Egyptian Treaty (1936)

* World War II

*The February 4th Incident (1942); King appointed a pro Nazi as his Prime Minister. Britain said no way. Britain forced his hand to fire the new Prime Minister

* Economic problems after the war; income gap, land ownership. 1% of landowners owned 35% of the land

* The Nakba

* The Muslim Brotherhood and the Triumph of the Monarchy (December 8, 1948); blamed the Egyptian government for the Nakba.

- Hasan al-Banna and King Faruq

1950's Egypt:

* Elections of 1950 and the Wafd Party; Faruq calls for fresh elections, push the reset button. The Wafd Party won. They decided to do something that would be popular among the people

* Abrogation of the Anglo- Egyptian Treaty; in 1951 the Wafd Party is going to push the British out of Egypt, and end the Treaty that gave Britain the power they had in Egypt.

- The Iranian Context; at the same time, Iran is threatening to take over the oil company that Britain has been in control of.

* The outbreak of violence (Winter 1951-52)

* Black Saturday (January 26,1952); Egyptians began looting and arsen.

* Bloodshed and Significance; The Wafd had lost control of the country and it was chaos.

The Coup:

*The Free Officers Coup (July 23, 1953); Military officers saw a moment of opportunity (all the failures) Who were they? Younger officers of the Egyptian Military, not high ranking. All of them came from rural Egypt and poor families.

* Gamal Abdel Nasser (30s); leader of the movement. Born in 1918 in Alexandria. Mom died when he was young. Dad was a post man. When mom died, he had to go live with his uncle. As a teen, he protested Britain's involvement in his country.

* The Free Officer's Grievances:

1. Failure of the Monarchy

2. Devastated by the Nakba; they viewed the reason that the lost was because the government did not aid them properly.

3. Eliminating British Influences

* A long time in the making; first meeting in 1949

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Overthrowing the Government (July 23, 1953)

* Abolition of the Monarchy; King Faruq was forced to step down

* Establishing a President; declared a Republic and chose between themselves as to who would be the President (Not Nasser yet)

* Nasser as the "Power behind the throne"

Goals of the Free Officers:

1. Restore the Reputation of the Arab World; avenge the Nakba

2. Promote Egyptian Nationalism; end foreign meddling once and for all

3. Social Reform; narrow the income gap.

Social Changes:

* Land Reform; restricted landownership to no more than 200 acres.

* Results by the numbers; Egyptian nobility had lost 675,000 acres from this reform

* Significance; this made the Free Officers popular with the people. Because they were committed to helping the peasant population.

Nasser and the World:

* Nasser in the eyes of the British; saw them as a dangerous threat

-Prime Minister Eden said, "An enemy this country... a public enemy, both menacing and dangerous."

-The "Muslim Mussolini"- Eden's comments in private about Nasser

*Nasser, Britain, and the Suez Canal; began talking, and worked out a Treaty

* The Anglo- Egyptian Treaty of 1954; called for the removal of the British Military forces out of Egypt. Then, Egypt agreed that they could stay in control of the canal, and could leave some civilians behind to run the canal. And Britain could still come to the aid of the canal if it is threatened.

-The withdrawal of British forces (April- June 1956); given 24 months to remove troops

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Suez

* Why would the British abandon their "Jugular Vein"?

1. Expenses; they are tapped out after WWII

2. The Suez Base in the Nuclear Age

3. Opinion in the Arab world

4. The Decline of the British Empire

* Limitations to the 1954 Treaty

Resistance:

*Resistance to the Free Officers

- The Muslim Brotherhood, Again

- Illegality and Arrest (1953-54)

* Assassination Attempt (Oct. 26, 1954); tried to kill Nasser while he was giving a speech

*Crackdown on the Brotherhood

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Review:

* The Free Off's Coup (1953)

* Gamal Abdel Nasser

* Goals of the Free Officers

- Restore the reputation of the Arab World; avenge the Nakba

- Promote Egyptian Leadership; eliminating the old imperial powers that were constantly meddling in the affairs of the Arab world. Therefore wanting Egypt to be a big leader for the Arab World

- Social Reform; wanted to change the big gap between the very poor and the very wealthy

Resistance

* The Muslim Brotherhood Again; they believed that the Arab World had turned their backs on the foundations of Islam. They wanted to go back to the old way of running the Arab World.

* Illegality and Arrest (1953-54); Nasser and the Free Officers made the Muslim Brotherhood Illegal because they were speaking out against the secular views of Nasser

* Assassination Attempt (Oct. 26, 1954);Nasser was NOT the face of the Free Officers, he was the power behind the scenes. Nasser was giving a speech, and someone took 8 shots at him. "My countrymen, my blood spills for you and for Egypt. I will live for your sake, die for the sake of your freedom and honor... Let them kill me; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride, honor and freedom in you. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die, each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser."

* Crackdown on the Brotherhood

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Nasser's Egypt

* President of Egypt (1954)

* A New Constitution (1956)

-A One-Party State, (The National Union), Nasser's party that was controlled by the Free Officers.

* Reaffirming Nasser

-99.9% of the vote; the party had fixed the voting system but that does not underwrite his popularity

Nasser's Challenges

* Challenge #1: Military Weakness; Nasser wanted revenge, but he was also fearful of Israel. He needed a military.

* Challenge #2: Maintaining Sovereignty

* Overtures from the United States; The US wanted to help Egypt so they wanted to make an agreement with Nasser. The US wanted a promise that Egypt would not ever side or help and aid the Soviet Union in the Cold War.

- The Middle East Defense Organization (MEDO)

* Nasser's Rejection

* Mossadeq, Again (1953)

* Meeting with John Foster Dulles (1953); Nasser says that he can't go to his people and say that he will focus his attention on an enemy (the Soviet Union) that is far away and no real threat to Egypt, when he had an enemy (Israel) that is right next door.

*The Lavon Affair (July 1954); Israel agents went to Egypt to blow up British and American property. They did this to make the attack look like they were done by Egyptians. So that British and Americans would not want to work with Nasser ever. But the whole attack was a failure.

* Assaults on the Gaza Strip (Feb. 28, 1955)

* The Baghdad Pact (1955); The US announced that it had come to develop a pact with Iraq, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan in which these countries refuse to aid the Soviet Union in the Cold War

*Nasser's Rejection Again

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Nasser's Strategy

* Non- Alignment; he sought to reject both sides and chart a 3rd way. He didn't want to align with either so that he can play both sides off each other for the benefit of Egypt

* Nasser, the Soviets, and the United States of America

*Nasser's Bluff?

* Getting tough with Nasser

-The Aswan Dam Project;

-$1 billion from the World Bank

To the Crisis

*The Czech Arms Deal (1955); Nasser agreed to a deal with the Czech Republic, a Soviet satellite. The Soviet Union offered to sell Nasser 2 million dollars worth of military aid and supplies in exchange for Egyptian cotton. The United States and Britain were very upset by this, putting Nasser and Egypt in the Soviet Union camp. So they decided to fight back. They used their pull with the World Bank to deny his loan for the dam project.

* The Fate of the Aswan Dam Project (July 1956);

* The Nationalization of the Suez Canal (July 16, 1956); Nasser announced that Egypt would be nationalizing the Suez Canal. Basically saying the Suez Canal no longer belongs to the British. This sparks the Suez Crisis

* Britain's 3 Decisions:

1. Political Pressure

2. A Lasting Settlement

3. Prepare for Military Action

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Review:

* Nasser's Challenges

- Military Weakness

- Maintaining Sovereignty

- Growing tensions with Israel and the West

* Non- Alignment; allows Nasser to not look like a puppet

* The Baghdad Pact and the Aswan Dam Project

* The Czech Arms Deal (1955)

Arab Politics in the 1950's

* The Baghdad Pact, revisited;

* The United States and Iraq (January 1954); the US tried bringing Iraq into the alignment (pact) as well. US made the same offer they made to Nasser

- Nuri al-Said

* The Nasser-Said Meeting (September 1954) ; Said wanted to find out why Nasser was against the pact. And find out how Nasser would react if Iraq joined the pact. Nasser said he would not join the pact and he didn't think that Said should either. Nasser said I don't want you to do it but I can't stop you. But Said took that to mean whatever you want

* Said, Iraq, and the Baghdad Pact (January 1955); Iraq joined the pact. And Nasser was shocked.

* The Egyptian- Syrian Mutual Defense Pact (1955); Nasser tries to unify other Arab countries together. Placing a target on Iraq

- Yemen and Saudi Arabia, too; Bad Blood (Hashemite) between Iraq and Saudi Arabia

* Significance

1. Nasser and Arab Nationalism

2. Hashemite Drama

3. Isolating Iraq

* "The Voice of the Arab" (est. July 1953); Egyptian run radio program. Nasser used to send messages out throughout the Arab world (Cairo being the Hollywood of the Arab World). Nasser uses this to attack Iraq

* Attacking Iraq with "The Voice"

* The impact of the Czech Arms Deal on Jordan and beyond; this help other nationalist throughout the Arab world see Nasser as a change for the good of the Arab nation.

* The Templer Mission (December 1955); Templer (British man sent by the US) tried to convince the Jordan King to joing the Baghdad Pact

*Unleashing "the Voice"; Nasser hit the Jordanian people with the knowledge that their King was thinking of signing a pact with the British. This caused massive protest. The people took to the streets

* Jordan's Change of Heart and the dire warning to the rest of the Arab World

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To the Crisis

* The Czech Arms Deal (1955)

* The Fate of the Aswan Dam Project (July 1956)

* The Nationalization of the Suez Canal (July 16, 1956)

* Britain's 3 Decisions:

1. Political Pressure

2. A lasting Settlement

3. Prepare for Military Action

An International Crisis

* Britain's Pact with France and Israel; The Nationalization of the Suez Canal not only hurt the British but the French as well because they were a majority owner in the Suez Company. Israel joined in an effort to protect themselves before Nasser and Egypt could attack Israel and avenge the Nakba

* The Israeli Invasion (Oct. 29, 1956); across the Sinai Peninsula. As war erupted, the British and French began bombings. Within a few days the British and French had taken the Suez Canal back. Cairo was under threat

* The Egyptian Escalation

* The Collapse of Egyptian Defenses

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insert handwritten notes from monday

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Review:

* The Suez Crisis and Nasser's Leadership

* Husayn and Said's opposition to Nasserism

* The "Voice of the Arab's" and Egyptian Propaganda

* The Appeal of Pan- Arabism to the masses

* Pan- Arabism and Arab Politics

Syria in the Age of Pan- Arabism

* Syria's Flirtation with the Soviet Union (1957)

- Military and Economic aid

- The promotion of a known Socialist; made the commander in chief of the military was a known Socialist

* America's Cold War Commitment

* Egypt's Military Intervention

* Jordan, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia Respond... favorably?

* Syria suggested what? Syria and Egypt should join together in a true Arab state

* The Ba'th Party to 1957; dominate political party in Syria

- Established 1946

- Arab Nationalism and Socialism

* Ba'thism in Syria (1957)

Nasser's Reactions

* Nasser's Skepticism:

1. Opposing Political Systems; Syria was a multiple party state while Egypt was a one party state

2. No Geographic Border; separated by 621 miles

3. Economic Challenges; different currencies. Egypt's economy was well off, while Syria's was weak

* Nasser's Summation/ Reluctance

* Nasser's Limited Options

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Onward to Union

* The Cairo Conference (January- Feb. 1958)

* Nasser's demands

-Political Parties

- Economies; had to be completely blended

* The United Arab Republic (est. Feb. 1, 1958)

* "Stunned Amazement"

* Referendum; held a national vote in both Egypt and Syria

United Arab Republic

* Nasser's Arrival in Damascus (Feb. 24)

The International Response:

* Nuri al-Said Iraq; a danger to Iraq

* Jordan

* International Recognition of the UAR; United States, Soviet Union, most members of the Baghdad Pact

* The Creation of the Arab Union (Feb. 14, 1958); Jordan and Iraq headed this formation. Born out of fear

Arab Nationalism and Lebanon

* Review: The National Pact of 1943; based on a promise that Lebanon would never be absorbed, it would always be independent

- No Integration

* On the Edge of Civil War (May 1958)

* Iraq Intervenes

- And Emergency Meeting

- Mobilization of the Iraqi military

Iraq

* The July 1958 Coup; Iraq revolution

-Abd al- Karim Qasim and the Iraqi Free Officers (like Nasser)

- Brutality of the Coup

- The end of the Hashemites in Iraq; Fasal the second killed in the coup, ended the Hashemite Kingdom rule

- Recognition (at a safe distance) of the United Arab Republic

Jordan

* Isolation; the lone country left standing against Nasserism

* British Intervention

- 1,500 Troops

- Husayn's humiliating affiliation

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Prelude to the 1967 War

The end of Pan-Arabism?

Review:

* Nasser's reluctant acceptance of the UAR (1958)

* The Hashemite response (The Arab Union)

* Fallout #1- Lebanon on the verge of civil war (May 1958)

* Fallout #2- The July 1958 coup in Iraq

* Fallout #3- Husayn, Jordan, and the British

Troubles in the UAR

Key Problems:

1. The Syrian Army; Nasser said that if he was to unify with Syria, it was gonna be on his terms. Syria was to mirror Egypt. The Syrian Army was brought under the Egyptian military. Which caused resistance.

2. Syria's Landowning Elite; Egypt had done a huge land reform. Once Syria was brought under Egypt, the same land reform was brought into Syria as well.

3. The Alienation of Syrian Politicians

* The Viceroy- the highest ranking Egyptian official that was to oversee Syrian affairs and report back to Nasser

4. Rule from Cairo (August 1961)

* The Syrian Military Coup (September 28, 1961

- The Viceroy (and all Egyptians) exiled

* Nasser's Escalation... and retraction

* "so that no Arab blood would be shed."

* Significance; first sight of cracks in Nasserism

Israel- Palestine

* Review: Nasser and the Nakba

- Nasser's early experiences

- The Israeli Threat

- Israel and Pan-Arabism

- An Arm of Western Imperialism

* Israel's sense of vulnerability

* The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) est. 1964; overturn the state of Israel, redefine it under the original outline of the Palestine Mandate by force if needed.

* Significance for Israel

- Israel still under attack

- Violence from the borders

- Floods of Soviet Arms

* A heightening of tensions

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The Coming of War

* Rumor and Speculation (May 1967); that Israel as planning an attack (preparing for war)

* Nasser mobilizes for war

* Nasser, the United Nations, and Sharm al-Shayh; peace keepers in Sinai (since 1956) calls for the removal of the peace keepers. The UN removed them

* Nasser's Blockade of the Straits of Tiran; ordered the Egyptian army to blockade the strait against Israel

* Nasser's Big Bluff or A Final Showdown?; he is expecting history to repeat itself. Expected the the US and Britain to step in and intervene.

* Nasser's Defense Pact (May 30); against Israel

War!

* Surprise Attack (June 5, 1967)

* Air Strikes and a Ground Invasion of Sinai; AIr Force was defeated before they even took to the skies

* Ceasefire (June 9, 1967) (The 6 days war) Victory to Israel

*Another Nakba

Consequences for Egypt

1. Undermining Nasserism; hollow ideology

2. Egypt loses Sinai and the Gaza Strip

3. Closure of the Suez Canal (1967- 1975); they could not agree on who would run and manage the canal. This was a huge economic blow to Egypt.

- Cold War Considerations; the Soviet Union used the canal to send supplies to Vietnam. So the closure of the canal helped the US because this prevented the Soviet Union from getting supplies to their enemy.

- Britain, no more

Regional Fallout

Jordan:

*The West Bank (Jerusalem and Bethlehem); loss to Israel

Syria:

* The Golan Heights

Military Fallout:

* Casualty Rate (12,000 Egyptian deaths)

* 80% of its tanks and resources were destroyed

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Further Consequences

* The Refugee Crisis

-300,000 fled the west bank

* The Psychological Shock

* The continuation of combat operations at Suez

* Another Ceasefire (July 1970)

* The Death of Nasser (Sept. 28, 1970); massive heart attack at 52; Pan- Arabism died with him.

The October 1973 War

* The Collapse of the UAR (September 1961)

* The Six Days War (June 1967)

- Undermining Nasserism

- Territorial Concessions

* The death of Nasser (September 28, 1970)

Fallout After 1967

The Rise of Radicalism

* Revolution in Iraq (July 17, 1968)

- Saddam Hussein's role

* Revolution in Libya (September 1969)

- Muammar Gaddafi

* Revolution in Syria (November 1970)

- Hafez al- Assad

* Radicalism; Big Picture; all the Fallout spurs the want to overthrow the state of Israel

- Destruction of Israel

- Liberation of Palestine

- Triumph over American Imperialism

* Why Antagonism toward the USA?

* Unfounded Connections: The USS Liberty