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Question	Answer
Rousseau	• What man loses by the social contract is his natural freedom and unlimited right to everything he needs; what he gains is civil freedom and the proprietorship of everything he posses…natural freedom, which is limited only by the force of the individual, and civil freedom, which is limited by the general will; and between possession, which is only the effect of force or the right of the first occupant, and property, which can only be based on a legal title.
Rousseau	• Each individual can, as a man, have a private will contrary to or differing from the general will he has as a citizen…he might wish to fulfill the rights of a citizen without wanting to fulfill the duties of a subject, an injustice whose spread would cause the ruin of the body politic.
Rousseau	Whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be constrained to do so by the entire body.
Rousseau	• This public person, formed thus by the union of all the others, generally assumes the name body politic, which its members call state when it is passive, sovereign when active, power when comparing it to similar bodies. As for the members themselves, they take the name People collectively, and individually they are called citizens.
Rousseau	Each of us puts his will, his goods, his force, and his person in common, under the direction of the general will, and in a body we all receive each member as an inalienable part of the whole.
Rousseau	One who believes himself the master of others is nonetheless a greater slave than they.
Kant	• The situation in question is one in which one state, as a moral person, is considered as existing in a state of nature in relation to another state, hence in a condition of constant war.
Kant	A citizen must be regarded as a co-legislative member of the state.
Kant	• Apart from an actively inflicted injury (the first aggression, as distinct from the first hostilities), a state may be subjected to threats. Such threats may arise either if another state is the first to make military preparations, on which the right of anticipatory attack (ins praeventionis) is based, or simply if there is an alarming increase of power (potentia tremenda) in another state which has acquired new territories. This is an injury to the less powerful state by the mere fact that the other state, even without offering any active offense, is more powerful; and any attack upon it is legitimate in the state of nature. On this is based the right to maintain a balance of power among all state which have active contact with one another.
Kant	The rational idea, as discussed above, of a peaceful (if not exactly amicable) international community of all those of the earth’s peoples who can enter into active relations with one another, is not a philanthropic principle of ethics, but a principle of right.
Kant	All nations are members of a community of land.
Kant	But if the nations involved are pastoral or hunting peoples (like the Hottentots, the Tunguses, and most native American nations) who rely upon large tracts of wasteland for their sustenance, settlements should not be established by violence, but only by treaty; and even then, there must be no attempt to exploit the ignorance of the natives in persuading them to give up their territories…all these supposedly good intentions (civilizing the natives, etc.) cannot wash away the stain of injustice from the means which are used to implement them.
Burke	You will observe from Magna Charta to the Declaration of Right it has been the uniform policy of our constitution to claim and assert our liberties as entailed inheritance derived to us from our forefathers, and to be transmitted to our posterity- as an estate specially belonging to the people of this kingdom, without any reference whatever to any other more general or prior right. By this means our constitution preserves a unity in so great a diversity of its parts. We have an inheritable crown, an inheritable peerage, and a House of Commons and a people inheriting privileges, franchises, and liberties form a long line of ancestors.
Burke	• A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a selfish temper and confined views.
Burke	We know, and what is better, we feel inwardly that religion is the basis of civil society and the source of all good and all comfort.
Burke	This idea of a liberal descent inspires us with the sense of habitual native dignity which prevents that upstart insolence almost inevitable adhering to and disgracing those who are the first acquirers of any distinction. By this means our liberty becomes a noble freedom. It carries an imposing and majestic aspect. It has a pedigree and illustrating ancestors. It has its bearings and its ensigns armorial. It has its gallery of portraits, its monumental inscriptions, its records, evidences, and titles.
Sieyes	The third estate then contains everything that pertains to the nation while nobody outside the Third Estate can be considered as part of the nation. What is the third estate? Everything.
Sieyes	The nobility, however, is a foreigner in our midst because of its civil and political prerogatives.
Sieyes	• What then is the Third Estate? All; but an “all” that is fettered and oppressed. What would it be without the privileged order? It would be all; but free and flourishing. Nothing will go well without the third estate; everything would go considerably better without the two others.
Sieyes	It is like a strong and robust man with one arm still in chains. If the privileged order were removed, it would not be something less but something more.
Sieyes	Such are the activities which support society. But who performs them? The Third Estate. Public services can also, at present, be divided into four known categories: the army, the Church, and the bureaucracy. It needs no detailed analysis to show that the Third Estate everywhere constitutes nineteen-twentieths of them, except that it is loaded with all the really arduous work, all the tasks which the privileged order refuses to perform. Only the well-paid and honorific posts are filled by members of the privileged order.
Sade	• Marriage is about force and property; therefore women aren’t free. Exclusive possession of a woman is no less unjust than the possession of slaves.
Sade	Prostitution, incest, rape, sodomy are moral crimes. War is immoral. Republic preserves itself only by war. How will one be able to demonstrate that in a state rendered immoral by its obligations, it is essential that the individual be moral.
Sade	• There shouldn’t be capital punishment, but a man who receives from nature the desire to kill should be allowed to. Nature is above the law.
Sade	And people are different so we can’t impose universal laws. It is a terrible injustice to require that men of unlike character all be ruled by the same law.
Sade	Make haste to get rid of clergy because holy Rome strains every nerve to repress your vigor; hurry lest you give Rome time to secure her grip.
Sade	What should we, who have no religion, do with laws? We must have a creed, a creed befitting the republican character.
Herder	Mankind—individuals, societies, and nations—is a natural system. Every individual bears within himself that symmetry, for which he is made, and to which he must mould himself, both in his bodily figure and mental capacities.” He compares physical deformity: “greek demi god” to the “passionate ardour of Negro brain.”
Herder	The third natural law is that if a being, or system of beings be forced out of this permanent condition of its truth, goodness, and beauty, it will again approach it by its internal powers, either in vibrations, or in an asymptote; as out of this state it finds no stability.
Herder	Hence the treachery of all savages, as they are called, even when they appear altogether satisfied with the courtesy of European visitors. The moment their hereditary national feelings awake, the flame they have long with difficulty smothered breaks out, rages with violence, and frequently is not appeased till the flesh of the stranger has been torn by the teeth of the native. To us this seems horrible; and it is so, no doubt; yet the Europeans first urged them to this misdeed; for why did they visit their country?
Herder	• Wherever an Arab is found, on the Nile or the Euphrates, or Libanus or in Senegal nay even in Zanguebar or the islands of the Indian ocean, if a foreign climate has not by length of time changed him into a colonist, he will display his original Arabian character.
Herder	'Race’ refers to a difference in origin, which in this case either does not exist, or in each of these countries, and under each of these complexions, comprises the most different races. For every nation is one people, having its own national form, as well as its own language: the climate, it is true, stamps on each its mark, or spreads over it a slight veil, but not sufficient to destroy the original national character.
Herder	• All nations can be perfect; a moral state is one that allows for the attainment of this perfection.
Herder	All mankind are only one and the same species.
Mazzini	Each man looked after his own rights and the improvement of his own condition without seeking to provide for others; and when his rights clashed with those of others, there was war; not destructive, cruel war, in which those who had the means and were strong relentlessly crushed the weak or the unskilled.
Mazzini	The idea of rights inherent in human beings is accepted, although hypocritically, even by those who seek to evade it.
Mazzini	When freely united, entwining your right hands like brothers round a beloved mother.
Mazzini	Without country you have neither name, token, voice, nor rights, no admission as brothers into the fellowship of the peoples… Israelites among the nations.
Mazzini	• Working men, tyrants will arise by the thousands among you, if you fight only in the name of material interests, or of a particular organization.
Mazzini	The important principle is Duty. We must convince men that they, sons of one only god, must obey one only law, here on Earth; that each one of them must live, not for himself, but for others, that the object of their life is not to be more of less happy, but to make themselves and others better; that to fight against injustice and error for the benefit of their brothers is not only a right; but a duty.
Mazzini	• The theory of rights enables us to rise and overthrow obstacles, but not to found a strong and lasting accord between all the elements that comprise a nation.
Mazzini	How can you reconcile the rights of the individual with the rights of the many and the rights of the nation? How can you make the man taught to look after his own happiness to fight in a war?
Darwin	In some cases the crossing of distinct races has led to the formation of a new race. The singular fact that the Europeans and Hindoos, who belong to the same Aryan stock, and speak a language fundamentally the same, differ widely in appearance, whilst Europeans differ but little from Jews, who belong to the Semitic stock, and speak quite another languages, has been accounted for by Broca, though certain Aryan branches having been largely crossed by indigenous tribes during their wide diffusion.
Darwin	• Civilized races resemble domesticated animals in that they may suffer from health problems, but rarely sterility.
Darwin	We thus see that many of the wilder races of man are apt to suffer much in health when subjected to changed conditions or habits of life, and not exclusively from being transported to a new climate. Mere alterations in habits which do not appear injurious in themselves, seem to have this same effect; and in several cases the children are particularly liable to suffer.
Darwin	• Death and infertility followed the attempt to civilize the natives.
Darwin	The grade of civilization seems to be a most important element in the success of competing nations. A few centuries ago, Europe feared the inroads of eastern barbarians; now any such few would be ridiculous.
Darwin	• Maybe sub-species would be an accurate word, but from long habit the term ‘race’ will perhaps always be employed.
Darwin	In India, as Elphinstone remarks, although a newly-arrived European cannot at first distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him extremely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference between the several European nations.
Darwin	We have seen in the second chapter that the conditions of life affect the development of the bodily frame in a direct manner, and that the effects are transmitted…there is a considerable body of evidence showing that in the southern states the house slaves of the third generation present a markedly different appearance from the field slaves…
Richardson	Gutter children are an impossibility in a place where there are no gutters for their innocent delectation. Instead of the gutter, the poorest child has the garden; for the foul sight and smell of unwholesome garbage, he has flowers and green sward. It will be seen, from what has been already told, that in this our model city there are no underground cellars, kitchens, or other caves, which, worse than those ancient British caves that Nottingham still can show the antiquarian as the once fastnesses of her savage children, are even now the loathsome residences of many millions of our domestic and industrial classes. There is not permitted to be one room underground.
Richardson	And, as smoking and drinking go largely together, as the two practices were, indeed, original exchanges of social degradations between the civilised man and the savage, the savage getting very much the worst of the bargain, so the practices largely disappear together. Pipe and glass, cigar and sherry-cobbler, like the Siamese twins, who could only live connected, have both died out in our model city. Tobacco, by far the most innocent partner of the firm, lived, as it perhaps deserved to do, a little the longest; but it passed away, and the tobacconist's counter, like the dram counter, has disappeared.
Richardson	The question of cremation and of burial in the earth has been considered, and there are some who advocate cremation. For various reasons the process of burial is still retained. Firstly, because the cremation process is open to serious medico-legal objections; secondly, because, by the complete resolution of the body into its elementary and inodorous gases in the cremation furnace, that intervening chemical link between the organic and inorganic worlds, the ammonia, is destroyed, and the economy of nature is thereby dangerously disturbed; thirdly, because the natural tendencies of the people lead them still to the earth, as the most fitting resting-place into which, when lifeless, they should be drawn. Thus the cemetery holds its place in our city, but in a form much modified from the ordinary cemetery. The burial ground is artificially made of a fine carboniferous earth. Vegetation of rapid growth is cultivated over it. The dead are placed in the earth from the bier, either in basket work or simply in the shroud; and the monumental slab, instead of being set over or at the head or foot of a raised grave, is placed in a spacious covered hall or temple, and records simply the fact that the person commemorated was recommitted to earth in those grounds. In a few months, indeed, no monument would indicate the remains of any dead. In that rapidly-resolving soil the transformation of dust into dust is too perfect to leave a trace of residuum. The natural circle of transmutation is harmlessly completed, and the economy of nature conserved.
Richardson	• The wards are warmed by a current of air made to circulate through them by the action of a steam-engine, with which every hospital is supplied, and which performs such a number of useful purposes, that the wonder is, how hospital management could go on without the engine. If at any time a ward becomes infectious, it is removed from its position and is replaced by a new ward. It is then taken to pieces, disinfected, and laid by ready to replace another that may require temporary ejection. The hospital is supplied on each side with ordinary baths, hot-air baths, vapour baths, and saline baths.
Richardson	It is my object to put forward a theoretical outline of a community so circumstanced and so maintained by the exercise of its own free will, guided by scientific knowledge, that in it the perfection of sanitary results will be approached, if not actually realized, in the co-existence of the lowest possible general mortality with the highest possible individual longevity. I shall try to show a working community in which death- if I may apply so common and expressive a phrase on so solemn a subject- is kept as nearly as possible in its proper or natural place in the scheme of life.
Richardson	Perchance some day our natural learning, gathered in our varied walks of life, and submitted in open council, may survive even Parliamentary strife.
Richardson	We, scholars of modern thought, have a broader, and therefore more solemn and obligatory knowledge, that however many to-morrows may come, and whatever fate they may bring, we never die; that, strictly speaking, no one yet who has lived has ever died; that for good or for evil our every change from potentiality into motion is carried on beyond our own apparent transitoriness; that we are the waves of the ocean of life, communicating motion to the expanse before us, and leaving the history we have made on the shore behind.
Richardson	What are the conditions which lead to the pain and penalty of disease; what the means for removal of those conditions when they are discovered? What are the most ready and convincing methods of making known to the uninformed the facts: that many of the conditions are under our control; that neither mental serenity nor the mental development can exist with an unhealthy animal organization; that poverty is the shadow of disease, and wealth the shadow of health?

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	Created by Nasya Al-Saidy over 10 years ago