SAS Midterm 2

Question	Answer
How did protection for the spotted owl influence interest in mushroom collecting?	There were restrictions on logging to protect the owl habitat. Many unemployed loggers became mushroom collectors.
What two factors caused wild mushrooms collected in the U.S. to become more valuable?	1. Demand from chefs in U.S. restaurants to make their food more distinctive 2. Demand from Asia due to decline in pine forests, therefore shortage in Japanese matsutake
What are two characteristics of #1 grade matsutake mushrooms?	-Matsutake is valued for its flavor and complex aroma. It is imported from America and described as having fruity, spicy, peppery, and earthy = bad flavor. -The cap is un-open and there is no insect larvae. The price ranges from $3-100 per pound. They are best if found before they emerge.
Describe the relationship between matsutake mushrooms and the candy cane plant.	Matsutake mushrooms are mycorrhizal, and because the candy cane plant is non-photosynthetic (you can tell because it is a red plant), it depends on the fungi to survive. The candy cane plant is actually parasitic though, taking the nutrients from the matsutake mycelium. The candy cane plant is host specific, meaning it only grows on the matsutake; this is helpful for mushroom hunters, because if a candy cane plant is spotted, then matsutake must be nearby. Also, if you cannot find them one year, they will probably be present the following year.
Where would you look if you wanted to find morels?	Morels are associated with trees, and you should look where there has been a disturbance in the forest - particularly a fire. They tend to be found close to dead elm trees (tree death promotes spore production). Mushroom hunters look most often in the spring for morels. More on the morel (just in case): We don’t know if morels are mycorrhyzal They tend to grow rapidly when the trees around them die They are very difficult to cultivate Some are saprobic
How can you distinguish the King bolete from Satan’s bolete?	You can tell the difference between a King bolete and its poisonous look-a-like, Satan’s bolete, by wounding the mushroom. The satan’s bolete will turn blue. Also, King’s Bolete is associated with pines, while Satan’s bolete is not.
What is a truffle and what role does it play in the life history of the fungus that produces it?	A truffle is a fruiting body of a fungus. It does not have the typical fruiting body traits though, as it is ascomycota. No gills or pores. Instead it has little internal cavities that contain spores that are dispersed mainly by animals eating the mushroom. Historically white truffle was peasant food in medieval times, then in the renaissance times it became very popular and desired among wealthier people, increasing demand and cost dramatically, making it the most expensive mushroom ever bought at $330,000.
What attracts pigs to truffles?	The truffle produces chemicals that have the scent of a male pig (specifically the scent of a male’s saliva), and female pigs by nature search out the males, so the truffles naturally attract female pigs to find them; in fact, female pigs can detect them from 50 yards away.
Why might dogs be a better choice for truffle hunters than pigs?	We prefer dogs because dogs don’t like to eat truffles. Pigs LOVE them! The only problem is you have to train a dog to hunt for truffles, whereas pigs will do it on their own.
Black truffles grow on the roots of hazelnut trees in plantations in France. What is the primary limitation on productivity in these plantations?	Black truffles need a specific environment to grow. They are mycorrhizal and only grow on the roots of hazelnut trees in certain regions of France, Italy and Spain. The problem is, there are competing ectomycorrhizal fungi that colonize roots and limit truffle production. And another setback is that the fruiting bodies take 10 years to achieve maximum production.
What naturally occurring phenomenon can provide the force needed to release spores from a puffball?	Raindrops will land on a mature puffball, forcing out spores.
How do you know when a puffball is too old to be eaten?	The puffball is edible when it is young. So when spores become mature you know it is too late to be eaten. the inside of the puffball (where the spores are located) turns black
Describe the relationship between the two fungi that constitute a lobster mushroom.	colonized by a parasite both are edible. It is a parasitic fungus attacking another fungus, and the parasite fungus causes the outer layer to turn an orange color, while the inner section remains white. You have to be careful when gathering these in the wild because the parasitic fungi may attack another host that is toxic. So always check the inner mushroom to make sure it is ok to eat.
How does one become an expert in mushroom identification according to the state of Minnesota?	Must complete a wild mushroom identification course which allows one to identify morels and nothing else.
What is the most popular edible mushroom?	The agaricus mushroom (button mushroom) is most popular mushroom worldwide
What substrate would you use to grow button mushrooms?	Compost because button mushrooms are secondary decomposers.
How is a Portobello mushroom related to crimini mushrooms?	Its A crimini mushroom that got too big
Which mushroom does not require light in order to grow properly?	button & criminis
What would be a good substrate for growing oyster mushrooms?	Since oyster mushrooms are primary decomposers they can break down cellulose so they can be grown on the following: wheat straw, blue jeans, logs, and stumps. wood
Mushrooms are a good dietary source of certain vitamins, which ones?	high in B vitamins--only plant source with B12; source of D vitamin if exposed to sunlight, protein, fiber, water, and some mushrooms contain all essential amino acids.
How could a meal of mushrooms in ancient Rome give you an idea about how your host perceived your social status?	Based on the number of mushrooms, and diversity of mushrooms that were served to you where an indication of social status. The more mushrooms and the more diverse they were the higher your status.
Describe how Locusta exposed Emperor Claudius to the deadly poison found in the death cap.	Locusta soaked the death cap mushroom in water, causing the water soluble toxins to leach out of the mushroom. The water-containing toxins were then poured over the Ceasar’s mushroom during the cooking process. Afterward, Locusta fed Claudius the Caesar’s mushrooms that were laced with death cap toxins, killing him as a result.
Why do recent immigrants face a higher than average risk of mushroom poisoning?	Recent immigrants are the victims due to misidentifying poisonous mushrooms as non-poisonous mushrooms from their native land.
Describe four ways that people can get sick from eating mushrooms that are unrelated to mushroom toxins.	-> panic attacks - food allergy - intestine blockage (mushrooms contain cell walls so it is difficult to digest) - bacterial food poisoning - Pesticides and/or fertilizers - Heavy metals/radioisotopesr
Why is it a good idea to cook mushrooms before eating them?	cooking could denature some toxins, kill bacteria in the mushroom, in some case, it taste better (for example morel)
What age group is most at risk of mushroom poisoning?	children who are unsupervised
Describe three characteristics that would help you to identify Amanita phalloides	Has a volva, gills have free broad and crowded white in color, unpleasant smell when mature, has annulus, white spores, has mycorrhizal associations with oak trees.
Amatoxins are heat‐stable and acid‐stable. Why are those properties important?	heat-stable: cannot be destroyed by cooking; acid-stable: they wont be broken down by acid in the stomach
What is meant by the term LD50?	average amount of toxin that would kill 50% of a population
Why are cells killed when exposed to amatoxins?	Amatoxins inhibit RNA polymerase II, an enzyme required for protein synthesis. it prevents formations of messenger RNA.
What is the most common cause of death in people who eat Amanita mushrooms?	It causes death of epithelial cells in the GI tract which causes abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea symptoms appear 8-12 hours after ingestion which lasts 48 hours which leads to liver failure and death.
Emesis refers to removal of stomach contents. Why is this usually not an effective treatment for amatoxin poisoning?	Emesis can only be treated right after consumption
What is the function of the poison control centers?	poison control centers provide information and advice concerning treatment for poisoning.
Why is charcoal commonly administered to victims of amatoxin poisoning?	because charcoal binds to toxins which then suspended in water MUST be administered immediately
How do penicillin and silibinin help minimize damage caused by amatoxins?	penicillin reduces uptake of amatoxins into liver cells and silibinin reduces toxin uptake(not approved by U.S.)
Name one edible fungus that is similar in appearance to a poisonous Amanita and describe one characteristic that might help you to tell the poisonous from the edible one.	1) Puff Ball versus Earth Ball: Earth Ball is dark inside even when young 2) Morels versus False Morels
Why should inky caps not be eaten in a meal that includes an alcoholic beverage?	Inky caps have coprine. Coprine when consumed with alcohol will yield the negative effect of nausea, because it slows down metabolism of alcohol. Therefore alcohol stays longer in the system. Sensitivity remains for up to 72 hours.
What is a retrospective study and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this approach?	Retrospective study is to just simply look back at what happened, without manipulating any variable. Strength: feasibility, low cost, no ethical issue in establishing the control group. Weakness: subjects may not be well matched
What is the difference between false gills and true gills?	True gills are each separately attached to the cap, while false gills are a continuous surface that is folded to create ridges and valleys
Why was the Raven important to the people known as the Haida?	Because the raven is viewed to be responsible for what were valued by the Haida, such as sun, moon, star, water, and salmon.
How did the Raven create fungus man?	By drawing a face on a fungus
How were Psilocybe mushrooms used in Mexico at the time of the arrival of the Spanish?	-> spiritual: priests consumed mushroom to see the outcome of the battles -> diplomatic: used as gifts (to leaders or to other tribes) -> recreational: “grow merry”, “loses senses”
What archaeological evidence supports ancient interest in mushrooms by native peoples in Mesoamerica?	artifacts from 1,500 years BCE, they have significant references to mushrooms. For example, mushroom caps and statues in position representing “hallucinogen-induced ecstasy”
Under what circumstances would it be legal to possess and consume the peyote cactus in the United States?	Freedom of religion trumps the law In the native american church used by native americans in southwestern US and northern mexico.
What is Teonanácatl?	Gods flesh.<--- Wasnt this considered to be the initial meaning, but then Richard Schultes figured out that it was actually a fungus, more specifically Psilocybe.
What was the basis for the criticism of Wasson’s study of mushroom use in Mexico?	He wasn’t objective. He found supporting evidence specifically for his hypothesis that the mushroom was used for religious purposes.
Why was the CIA interested in Psilocybe mushrooms?	CIA thought mushrooms might be used for mind control or as a truth serum.
Describe the process by which the active ingredient in Psilocybe mushrooms was identified?	First the chemicals were purified/extracted from the mushroom and then a bioassay was performed on volunteers. the conversion occurs in the body Psilocybin-->Psilocin
What is the basis for the activity of psilocin in the brain?	PSILOCIN is the hallucinogenic principle. (serotonin mimic which influences mood and affects levels in the brain)
Information presented in books may not be based on sound science, why might that be the case?	peer-review not required ideas may not be supported by sound science, less authoritative source of information. Radical ideas that may later prove to be correct.
Why is it not a violation of Federal law to possess spores of Psilocybe mushrooms?	The spores do not contain psilocin, the hallucinogenic chemical.
What does it mean for a drug to be listed by the DEA as schedule I?	High potential for abuse=Harm to user or to others. Not accepted medical use has no psilocin
What are the four main ingredients in beer?	water, barley, hops, yeast
What is the malting process and why is it important for making beer?	Converting starch to maltose which yeast eats to produce ethanol
What is mashing?	starch is converted into fermentable sugar, mixed into hot water
What does yeast contribute to beer?	making alcohol: alcohol fermentation - flavor: different strains result in different tastes - CO2: product of the anaerobic fermentation
The degradation of humulone (an ingredient of hops) by light can result in formation of mercaptan, which imparts a skunky flavor to beer. Beer makers have found two ways to prevent this problem. What are they?	1) Darker bottles, 2) chemically modify humolone to be UV resistant
Describe four ways in which wine making is different than brewing.	- Grapes aren’t sterilized - Wine differs from year to year - Higher alcohol content - Seasonal due to growing seasons - Yeast is already present - region grapes are grown defines the flavor, not the yeast
How does cheese making serve to preserve the food value of milk?	Has more fat and more protein; has higher density of nutrients. Less prone to spoilage, less water
How does the growth of Penicillium roquefortii in milk curds affect the character of the final product?	Secretes digestive enzymes to soften and add peppery flavors to the cheese
What are two possible sources of the enzyme used to curdle milk and increase the amount of protein in the curd?	Protease also known as rennin……… The enzyme is renin, which is a type of protease that digests milk. 1) Put milk in a calf stomach and let it curdle 2) Take the gene that codes for renin and put it in a fungus that will in turn make renin, no calves die! 80% of cheese is made this way in the U.S.
Needles are used to make holes in the curds during the production of fungal ripened cheese. Why is this done?	to provide oxygen and promote growth
What requirements must be met in order for a cheese to carry the label “Roquefort”?	Made in roquefort france with ewe’s milk and is cave ripened
How could ergot poisoning have foiled Peter the Great’s attempt to invade Turkey?	Troops and horses died from eating rye infected with ergot. so many died that the invasion was called off
What evidence supports a role for ergot poisoning in the Salem Witch Trials?	Victims had symptoms similar to those of ergot poisoning. Muscles spasms causing pinching feelings, tingling limbs and the feeling of things crawling under the skin
What are ergots and how do they play a role in the life cycle of the ergot fungus?	They are fungal survival structures, similar to seed of a plant
Why is it advantageous for fungi to infect flowers?	- Ergots infect the ovary where plants would normally nourish developing fruit. ex) strawberries and apples - Instead all that nutrients is sucked up by the ergot
Why is ergot poisoning not a problem today?	People know how to prevent it. Ergot free seed, crop rotation, quality control
What is a beneficial compound that has been obtained from ergot and how is it used?	- For ergonatine: used to reduce bleeding after childbirth - For ergotamine: treat headaches (migraines)
What therapeutic uses of LSD were tested and which ones showed the most promise?	- Schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, terminally ill - Alcoholism and terminally ill is most promise
What was the objective of the Concord Prison experiment?	To reduce recidivism, meant to improve attitude and outlook
How can endophytic fungi be beneficial to their plant host?	They are used as an indirect defense against herbivores so their plant host does not get eaten.
How did Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest make use of the wood decay fungus known as Fomitopsis officinalis?	They used it to create statue-like objects that served as dream-catchers; after death, these fungus-carved objects became grave protectors
What is a philologist?	Someone who studies of languages in written historical sources ex) John Allegro: retranslated the bible, studied meaning of words, came to conclusion that Jesus was a mushroom, got a lot of critcism
Where is the fly agaric found in nature?	In the forests of the Northern Hemisphere: North America, Asia, Europe
What are the physiological effects of consuming muscimol?	Inhibits neurotransmission, possibly hallucinogenic
How did the Vikings use the fly agaric?	eat fly agaric before battle for behavioral modification: numb to pain, fearless, etc.
How does the story: ‘Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland’ reflect awareness of the fly agaric and how it was used?	the story describes fly agaric symptoms of macropsia (perceiving things as large and more distant)
Explain how it may be possible for the same mushroom to have very different effects on people.	Regional differences in chemical composition
Gordon Wasson believed that Soma, as described in the Rig Veda, was a reference to the fly agaric. Why did Terence McKenna think Soma was more likely to be a species of Psilocybe?	fly agaric causes confabulation (distorted memories), whereas Soma was described as lucid
McKenna suggested that inclusion of Psilocybe in the diet of early humans may have helped them to become better hunters. Why?	it enhanced visual activity in low doses
What is synthesia, and how could it have contributed to the development of human mental abilities?	“blurring of the senses;” it could have been the initial development of imagination and thus spoken language because people would watch over one another while they contemplated
What are three factors that helped the outnumbered Spanish Conquistadors triumph over the Aztecs?	fire power, alliances with other tribes, and germs/smallpox
What is one important difference in the way that mushrooms were used in a Velada in Mexico compared to how they were used by Shaman in Siberia?	In Velada everybody consumed the mushroom during the ceremony, whereas in Siberia the Shaman was the only one to consume the mushroom.
Describe two options for dealing with the problem known as bunch rot (caused by the fungus, Botrytis).	- Desiccates berries, concentrates sugars, and adds flavor.--these are the effects, but how do you deal with it? - Fungicides, and creating the grapes with bunch rot as a late harvest wine. Or, you just make wine out of it!
Societal efforts to mitigate problems caused by drug abuse fall into three categories. What are they?	1. 2. 3.

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