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| Question | Answer |
| Globalisation | • Virtually all business conducted today is influenced by a cross-border transaction of some kind • International responsibilities and ontact with other cultures are now commonplace • One of the most neglected environmental factor by managers is the influence of culture |
| Globalisation Definition by Professor (1) | • mobility of people, ideas and capital through space and time • started with the first human movements • growing interconnectedness • a continuing process • competition of ideas at local, regional, national, international and global level (and possibly in space) |
| Globalisation Definition by Professor (2) | • unclear if reversible or irreversible • impacts upon all spheres of human life, including economy, culture, politics, technology, environment • outcome uncertain • place-specific global interconnectedness (hybridisation) • closely connected to localisation |
| History | ADD (Lecture 2, slide 29) |
| Current Globalization | • Particular (historical) model of globalisation • Economic model overarching (capitalism, postfordism, Americanisation, cultural imperialism) • Impact on technological, environmental, sociopolitical and cultural globalisation • New dimension: Time-space compression |
| Scientific Approaches to Globalization | Held’s Spectrum: • Globaliser (Fukuyama) • Transformalist (Barber) • Traditionalist (Huntington) |
| General Approaches to Globalization | • Historical epoch (see before) • Confluence of economic phenomena • Cultural triumph of American values • Socio-political revolution • Technological revolution • Blundering the environment |
| Economical Phenomena | • Democratisation of finance (Friedman, 2000) • Main driver specific form of globalisation (Chomsky,unknown)- Western capitalism fostered by Bretton Woods institution • Determined by market forces (Fukuyama, 1998) • Moves between politics of identity and economies of profit (Barber,1996) • Consequence of political globalisation (Huntington, 1993) |
| Triumph of American Cultural Values | • Only superficial- there is no global culture- world of different civilisations (Huntington, 1993) • Result: Hybridisation of hybrid cultures- with increased speed or • Logical process of market forces (Fukuyama, 1998) • Result: Americanisation as inevitable and logic or • Americanisation versus Lebanisation- Disneyland versus Barbel (Barber, 1992, 1996) |
| Socio-political Revolution | Two scenarios: 1. Globalisation = ‘enemy’ that unifies various groups=conflict between civilisations (Huntington 1993, 1996) leading to ‘Retribalisation’, ‘Balkanisation’, localisation 2. Globalisation= ‘friend’ that helps to disperse American liberal democracy= ‘one world’ with universally accepted political ideas and principles leading to ‘McWorld’, ‘Americanisation’ (Fukuyama, 1998) |
| Driven by technological revolution | • Early mechanisation e.g with water power > 1770 • Steam engines/ railways > 1830 • Electricity and big industrial complexes > 1880 • Fordist mass production > 1930 • Information and communication technology > 1980 |
| Blundering the Environment (1) | End of nature: • Homo technologicus • American consumption patterns • Economy before ecology • Growing urbanisation • Nature only in remnants like museums • Loss biodiversity • Lack international law |
| Blundering the Environment (2) | Century of ecology: • Homo ecologicus • Pressure to preserve nature • Ecology before economy • Growing urbanisation • Nature protected from human interference • Reduced loss biodiversity • International laws to protect environment |
| Conclusion about Globalization | • Globalisation is about (cultural, economic,environmental) spatial interconnectedness • Globalisation historical development • Current globalisation specific economic model with increasing timespace compression • Impacts on and is impacted by economy, culture, politics, technology and environment • Both forces: movement of people, ideas and capital- need new technology to expand- historically linked- need local and global |
| Connotations of Culture in Everyday Life | 1) as creative, artistic work, which not everyone is able to do; it is seen as something special 2) describes a certain lifestyle including certain manners, a humanitarian attitude, education and good taste 3) characteristics and peculiarities (e.g. customs, manners, religion), which can be observed with another people and within a sub-community of your own community |
| 1) Low Culture 2) High Culture | 1) Deragotary term for popular culture (that has mass appeal) 2) Referring to "best of breed" cultural products; defined by most powerful section of society (social, intellectual, political) |
| Culture is Shared | 1) by members of a particular group (e.g. Chinese honour their teachers on the anniversary of the birth of Confucius) 2) Group with common language and custom share a culture 3) Groups can be as small as 50 or a nation of millions |
| 1) Culture is Learned 2) Enculturation | 1) transmitted through the process of learning and interacting with the social environment (e.g. language, system of government, forms of marriage) 2) the process of acquiring culture; learning or interacting with one's environment; observation, direct learning, experience; can also be conditioned through repeated training or brain-washing |
| Culture is systematic and organized | ...a coherent systems, where the parts are interrelated: e.g. US citizens have difficulty to associate with the marital practice of polygamy, it is illegal and economically counterproductive The Kikuyu in East Africa practice polygamy- more wives, more children enhance economic well-being of these subsistence farmers |
| Diverse Concepts of Culture (1) 1) Topical 2) Historical 3) Behavioural 4) Normative | 1) Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, or categories, such as social org, religion and economy 2) Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on to future generations 3) Culture is shared, learned human behaviour 4) Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living, e.g. house or tent |
| Diverse Concepts of Culture (2) 5) Functional 6) Mental 7) Structural 8) Symbolic | 5) Culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the environment or living together 6) Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals 7) Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or behaviours 8) Culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by a society |
| Cultural Subystem That Influence People and Their Behaviour | Kinship (Individualism, Collectivism) Education System (China, Australia) Economic System (Capitalism, controlled) Political System (Democracy, dictatorship) Health System Recreation (outdoor, indoor) Religion |
| Culture- a working definition (Thomas and Peterson) | 1) Culture is a set of knowledge structures consisting of systems of values, norms, attitudes, beliefs, and behavioural meanings that are shared by members of a social group (society) and that are learned from previous generations. 2) Cultures evolve in terms of different solutions to common environmental problems |
| Culture and Nation: Influence on Organisations 1) Macro Level 2) Micro Level | 1) • laws and economic institutions , e.g. written law-case-based law • the nation must be considered by organizations going about their business 2) • the org is influenced through a number of cultural elements relating to: – employer-employee relationships, e.g. flat or hierarchical – behaviour among employees, e.g. punctuality |
| National Culture 1) Elements that contribute to the creation of a national culture 2) Institutions that contribute to the establishment of a national culture | 1) Physical environment & History of the nation 2) Family/Religion/Education & Mass communication media & the multinational company |
| National Culture - Does It Exist? | Multiple cultures can exist within borderlines E.g. First Nations peoples of North America, Canada, Francophones and Anglophones But: the activities of managers are governed by national laws and regulations- national culture as the most logical level of analysis? |
| Debates around the Concepts of Culture | 1) Convergence, divergence or equilibrium; globalisation, glocalisation, localisation? Westernisation or not? 2) Difference between national and organisational culture??? |
| 1) National Culture 2) Organizational Culture | 1) Shared meaning, unconditional relationship, born into, totally immersed 2) Shared behaviours, conditional relationship, socialized into, partly involved |
| Organizational Culture | In organization, culture affects the way: - strategy is determined (e.g. international, regional, national focus?) - goals are established (e.g. CSR or not?) - how the organization operates (e.g. advertising) The personnel of the org influenced by: - their cultural backgrounds; - their own values and perceptions |
| Corporate Culture | Corporate culture is a combination of: - Organizational culture - National/regional culture Two meanings on the influence of corporate culture; Key to success if: 1) Clearly defined corporate culture 2) Flexible culture |
| Culture and Cross-cultural Management | explains the behaviour of people in organizations around the world describes and compares organizational behaviour across countries and cultures seeks to understand and improve the interaction of : co-workers, managers, executives, clients, suppliers, and alliance partners |
| 1) Acculturation 2) Bi-culturalism | 1) psychological and behavioural changes that occur in people because of contact with different cultures (e.g. former Aussiedler); segregation, marginalisation, integration 2) functioning in more than one culture |
| Continuumm of Acculturation 1) Separation 2) Marginalization 3) Integration 4) Assimilation | 1) Individuals value their original culture and avoid others 2) Low interest in cultural maintenance and relationship with individuals from other cultures 3) Cultural integrity is maintained while the individual participates in larger social network 4) Individual from a non-dominant group does not wish to maintain their original culture and actively participates in dominant culture |
| Ethnocentrism | The use of one‘s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviours |
| Conclusion (1) | Culture is shared, learned, organised Sometimes described as reaction to environmental challenges There are diverse concepts of culture, e.g. behavioural, historical It is questionable if `the´ national culture exists |
| Conclusion (2) | Cultural convergence, divergence and equilibrium are possible reactions to globalisation Organisational and national cultures are different (e.g. shared behaviour- shared meaning) Acculturation and ethnocentricsm are important concepts |
| "Sometimes one or more cultures may take dominance over another culture, depending on the situation." - Examples | • Corporate culture dominates over national culture • National culture dominates over religious culture • Religious culture dominates over sexual orientation • Generational culture dominates over gender culture´ |
| European Value Study (EVS) | The European Values Study is a large-scale, cross-national, and longitudinal survey research program on basic human values. It provides insights into the ideas, beliefs, preferences, attitudes, values and opinions of citizens all over Europe. |
| How Does Culture Influence Us? | A number of cultural aspects influence the way we interact with other people, including national culture, gender culture, corporate culture and various communication styles. All these elements influence: work, language, behaviour etc. |
| The Cultural Orientations Model 1) Sense of Self 2) Thinking Style 3) Interaction Style | 1) How people tend to view identity and motivation in work situations 2) How people tend to process information in work situations 3) How people tend to communicate and engage with others in work situations |
| Basic Cultural Orientations: Kluckholn & Strodtbeck | Comparative model of basic cultural orientations: • the nature of people • relationship to nature • relationship to other people • nature of human activity • orientation of time • conception of space |
| Variations in Value Orientations 1) What is the character of human nature? 2) Relationship man-nature? 3) Time focus of human activity? 4) Modality of human activity? 5) Relationship man-man? | 1) Good - Evil - Mix 2) Man dominates - Nature dominates - Harmony 3) Past - Present - Future 4) Spontaneous expression of desires - All-round development of self - Achieving measureable goals 5) Hierarchical - Collectivist - Individual |
| Research of... 1) Edward Hall 2) Nancy Adler 3) Edgar Schein 4) Geert Hofstede & Fons Trompenaars | 1) On communication 2) On different organizational functions 3) On organizational culture 4) On national culture |
| The Culture Model of Hall - 4 Cultural Dimensions | 1) Personal space 2) Time orientation 3) Context orientation 4) Speed of information |
| Chronemics 1) Definition 2) Monochronic 3) Polychronic | 1) Study of the role of time in communication 2) Things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units 3) several things can be done at once, and wider view of time is exhibited and time is perceived in large fluid sections |
| High/Low Context Cultures 1) High CCs 2) Low CCs | 1) Information lies in the context, it need not be verbalized (Japan) 2) Straightforward communication (Germany) |
| Power Distance | The extent to which people accept unequal power distribution in a society (Germany: low Japan: balance) |
| 1) Collectivist 2) Individualist | The extent to which people prioritize or weigh their individuality versus their willingness to submit to the goals of the group (Germany: high I Japan: balance) |
| 1) Feminine 2) Masculine | The extent to which a culture exhibits traditionally masculine or feminine values Masculine: Assertiveness, competitiveness, toughness, ambition, achievement, success Feminine: family, cooperation, tenderness, nurturing, caring for others, quality of life (Germany: high M Japan: high M) |
| Uncertainty Avoidance | The extent to which a society willingly embraces or avoids the unknown High: values predictability, structure, order Low: values risk taking, ambiguity, limited structure (Germany: high Japan: high) |
| 1) Indulgence 2) Restraint | The extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses (Germany: balanced, R Japan: balanced, R) |
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