66749
Description
Flashcards by Just_Yasmin, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Just_Yasmin
over 12 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Independent Variable | The thing that is manipulated |
| Dependent Variables | The resulting behaviour that is measured |
| True Experiment | Participants are randomly assigned to conditions |
| Quasi-experiments | Participants are already on groups |
| Between Participants | divide the set of participants into two group. Each group has a different condtion |
| Within Participants | Each participant does the task twice. Once in each condition |
| One-tailed Hypothesis | X will be bigger/smaller than Y |
| Two- tailed Hypothesis | X will be different to Y |
| Internal validity | when we can conclude that the independent variable brought about the observed changes in the dependent variable |
| External Validity | The degree to which we can generalise our results to other participants, other conditions, other times and other places |
| Confounding Variables | A variable that systematically changes with the independent variable and dependent variable |
| Lab Experiment | conducted in a highly controlled artificial environment. There is a problem of low external validity |
| Field experiment | conducted in naturally occurring environment for participants |
| Placebo | Inert innocuous version of treatment resulting in psychosomatic placebo effect. |
| Effect Size | Difference between two means in terms of standard deviations |
| Deduction | Logical argument using rules to derive a conclusion from premises |
| Hypothesis testing | research that analyses data for a predicted effect |
| Categorical Variable | each value id a discrete and qualitatively separate categories |
| Measured Variable | We can use a number to indicate where along a scale a person lies on this variable |
| Reification | the tendency to treat abstract concept as if it had independent existence. |
| Construct Validity | the extent to which our measure actually coincides with the construct |
| Operational definition | definition of phenomenon in terms of the precise procedures taken to measure it. |
| Hypothetical construct | phenomenon or construct assumed to exist and used to explain observed effects, but as yet unconfirmed; stays as an explanation of effects while evidence supports it. |
| Reliability | The extent to which findings or measures can be repeated with similar results. Consistency of measures |
| Validity | the extent to which instruments measure what they intended to measure. Also the extent to which a research effect can be trusted as real or as not 'contaminated' or confounded. |
| Population | all the existing members of a group |
| Sample | A group selected form the population for an investigation |
| Sampling Frame | the population from which we will sample from |
| Participant Variable | Variations between persons acting as participants & which are relevant to the study |
| Sampling Bias | The weighting of a sample with an over-representation of one particular category of people |
| Simple Random Sample | every case in the target population has an equal chance of selection and so does every possible combination of cases |
| Systematic Random Sample | select every nth case form the population where n is an number. before selection is started every case must have an equal chance of being in the sample |
| Stratified Sample | A sample is selected so that specified groups will appear in numbers proportional to their size in the target population; within each sub-group cases are selected randomly. |
| Cluster Sampling | groups in the population selected at random from among other similar groups and assumed to be representative of a population. |
| Quota Sampling | Consists of obtaining people from categories, in proportion to their occurrence in the general population but the selection from each category is entirely determined by the researcher |
| Self selecting Sample | researcher use participants that are readily available |
| Opportunity/Convenience Sample | a sample selected because they are easily available for testing |
| Haphazard Sample | A sample selected from the population with no conscious bias ( but not likely to be truly random) |
| Purposive Sample | The selection choice is made by the researchers on the basis of those who are more representative for the research issue or who are likely to have expertise in the matter |
| Critical Case | A special case may sometimes highlight things that can be related back to most non-special cases |
| Focus Groups & Panels | Researchers may bring together a panel of either experts, those with a particular interest in a topic or in the case of focus groups, simply a selection of people who are fairly representative of the general population. |
| Sampling Bias | Systematic tendency towards over- or under- representation of some categories in a sample |
| Positivism | Methodological belief that the world's phenomena are reducible to observable facts and the mathematical relationships between them. |
| Control Groups | groups used as a baseline measure against which the performance of the experimental group is assessed |
| Placebo Group | experience exactly the same conditions as the experimental group expect for the level of the independent variable is thought to affect the dependent variable. |
| Independent Variable | one group of participants is subject to the experimental condition while an entirely different group of people participates in the control condition. These two conditions are the levels of the independent variable that was manipulated by the experiment. |
| Snowball Sample | a technique often employed in qualitative research where the information is required from key people in an organization or from those whose have personal or professional experience with the research issue. |
| Pre-test | Measure of participants before an experiment in order to balance or compare groups, or to asses changes by comparison with scores after the experiment. |
| Order effects | effects from the order in which people participate in conditions. |
| Related design | a score in one condition is discretely paired with a score in the other condition |
| Unrelated design | the 'independent samples' or 'between groups'. Each score in one group or condition cannot in anyway relate to any specific score in the other group or condition. |
| Factors | another name for independent variables |
| Asymmetrical order effect | an order effect that has greater strength in one particular order and where, therefore, counterbalancing would be ineffective |
| Baseline Comparison | Measure of what would occur if no experimental level of the independent a |
| Factorial Design | experiment in which more than one independent variable is manipulated |
| Non-equivalent Groups | A possible confounding variable where two or more groups in a independent samples design experiment differ on a skill or characteristic relevant to the dependent variable |
| Participant Variable | person variables differing in proportion across different experimental groups and possibly confounding results |
| standardized procedure | Testing or measuring behavior with exactly the same formalized routine for all participants |
| Error Variance | Variance among scores caused by the operation of randomly acting variables. |
| Experimental Validity | The truth of conclucions drawn about an experiment. |
| Threats to Validity | any influence on research variables that might provide an alternative explanation of our effect or that might limit generality of what we appear to have found. |
| Construct Validity | whether our measures of a construct are really measuring it, and also the extent to which the construct itself is supported by psychological evidence |
| Participant expectancy | the expectation on the part of the participants that their behavior should alter in an experimental situation |
| Demand Characteristics | cues in a study which help participants work out what is expected |
| Social desirability | the tendency of research participants to want to look good and provide socially acceptable answers. |
| Evaluation apprehension | participants concern about being tested, which may affect results. |
| Reactive | studies in which the participant is expected to react to being studied |
| Single Blind | participants do not know what condition they are in |
| Double blind | an experimental procedure whether neither the participants or the experimenter knows what condition the participant is in |
| Expectancy control design | half of the participants receive the experimental treatment and half do not as in the standard between groups design. |
| Population Validity | the extent which an effect can be generalized from the sample to the sample population from which they were selected and to other populations |
| Ecological Validity | the extent to which findings generalize to other settings |
| Meta-analysis | Statistical analysis of results results of multiple equivalent studies of the same or very similar hypotheses in order to assess more thoroughly an effects validity |
| Hawthorne effect | effect on human performance caused solely by the knowledge that one is being observed |
| Natural Experiments. | events beyond the researcher's direct control but where an Iv and DV can be identified. |
| Group difference studies | a post facto study that compares the measurements of an existing variable in two contrasting conditions. |
| Mundane realism | feature of design where experiment resembles everyday but is not necessarily engaging |
| Experimenter realism | effect of attention-grabbing interesting experiment in compensating for artificiality or demand characteristics |
| Raw data | the unprocessed data gathered directly from participants before they are organized or treated statistically. |
| Categorical weekend | variable where cases are merely placed into independent, separate categories |
| Measured Variable | variable were cases measured on it are placed on some sort of scale that has a direction |
| Nominal Level | level of measurement at which numbers are the only labels for the categories |
| Frequencies | number of cases in specific categories. These numbers are being used to count, they do stand for quantities. |
| ordinal level | level of measurement at which cases are arranged in rank position |
| Interval level | level of measurement at which units on a scale represents an equal change in the variable measured |
| Quasi-interval scales | scale that appears to be interval but where equal intervals do not necessarily measure equal amounts of the construct. |
| Ratio | interval type scale where proportions on the scale are meaningful because there is an absolute zero point |
| Discrete Scale | each point is entirely separate from the next |
| Continious Scale | there is no limit to the sub divisions of points that are possible and meaningful, though there will be limits in practice, depending on the type of measuring instrument used |
| Data Set | group of data points or values which can be summarized or analyzed |
| Central Tendency | formal term for any measure of the typical or middle value in a group. |
| Dispersion | technical and general term fro any measure of the spread of scores in a sample of the population data. |
| Range | the distance between the top and bottom values of a set |
| Inter-quartile range | distance between the first and third quartile in the distribution |
| Semi inter quartile range | half the distance between first and third quartile in a distribution |
| Deviation value/ score | the amount by which a particular value deviates from the mean |
| Mean Deviation | measure of dispersion- mean of all absolute deviations |
| Degrees of freedom | common term in statistical analysis having to do with the number of individual data points that are free to vary given that overall summary values are known. |
| Variation ratio | proportion of non-modal values to all values |
| Sample statistics | measures of a sample. they are frequently taken as an estimate of the same measures of a population |
| Line charts | chart joining continuous data points in a single line |
| time-series | line chart showing measures of variable at progressive time intervals. |
| Frequency Polygon | histogram showing only the peaks of class intervals |
| Explanatory data analysis | close examination of data by a variety of means before submitting them to significance testing |
| Cumulative frequency | distribution that shows the number of cases that have occurred up to and including the current category |
| Box plots | based on ordinal measurements of the set of data. The give us a graphical representation of the inter-quartile range |
| Frequency Distribution | distribution showing how often certain values occurred in categories |
| Percentile | point of on a measured scale that marks off a certain percentage of cases in a data set |
| Decile | Point on a measured scale that marks off each 10% of the data set of the population |
| Normal Distribution | continuous distribution, bell shaped, symmetrical about its mid-point. |
| Standard Score | number of standard deviations a particular score us from it's sample mean. |
| Sampling Distribution | Theoretical distribution that would be obtained by taking the same statistic from many same size samples |
| Sampling Error | difference between a sample statistic and the true population statistic, usually to assumed to be random in origin |
| Standard error | the distribution has a standard deviation |
| Central Limit Theorem | Used in theoretical estimations of standard error of sampling distribution from standard deviation of a sample. |
| Confidence Intervals | limits to the likely interval within which a population mean lies based on an estimate from a sample mean and standard error |
| Skewed Distribution | non-normal distributions that have a lot more scores on one side of the mode than the other |
| Ceiling Effect | occurs where a measure produces most values near the top end of a scale |
| Floor Effect | phenomenon where measures produce very many low scores |
| Kurtosis | the overall shape of a distribution in terms of height and width compared with normal distribution |
| Platykurtic | non-normal distribution that is widely spaced out and low in the centre |
| Leptokurtic | Non-normal distribution that is closely bunched in the center and tall |
| Significance test | test performed in order to decide whether the null hypothesis should be retained or rejcted |
| Null Hypothesis | Assumption of no effect in the population from which the samples are drawn |
| Alternative Hypothesis | assumption that an effect exists |
| Significance Level | levels of probability at which it is agreed to reject the null hypothesis. if the probability if obtained results under the null hypothesis is less than the set level then the null hypothesis is rejected |
| Critical Value | value that the results of our test statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected. |
| Type II Error | The probability of retaining the null hypothesis when it is false |
| Effect Size | the size of the effect being investigated as it exist in the population |
| Power | The probability of not making a type II error if a real effect size occurs. The probability of selecting a case or sample above the level of Beta in the population defined by the alternative hypothesis id 1 - Beta |
| One tailed Test | test referring to only one tail of the distribution under the null hypothesis. May be used i alternative hypothesis is directional |
| Two Tailed hypothesis | test referring to both tails of the probability distribution. Must be used if the alternative hypothesis is non-directional |
| Parametric test | Relatively powerful significance test that makes estimations of population parameters. The data tested must usually therefore satisfy certain assumptions. |
| Distribution Dependent Test | significance test making estimations of population parameters. |
| Difference Mean | mean of differences between pairs of scores. |
| Pooled Variance | combining of two sample variances is to average in order to estimate population variance |
| Non-Parametric Test | significance test that does not make estimations of parameters of and underlying distribution. |
| Deception | Leading participants to believe tat something other than the true independent variable is involved or withholding information such that the reality of the investigative situation is masked or distorted |
| Debriefing | informing participants about the full nature and rationale of the study they've experienced and attempting to reverse any negative influences |
| Stress and Discomfort | psychological investigators should guarantee the safety of their participants and that everything possible should be done to protect them from harm of discomfort |
| The Right to Withdraw | in all research that involved individual participation the investigator is obliged to - 1. give participants at to likely levels of discomfort, 2. remind them of their right to withdraw & 3. terminate the experiment if discomfort levels are higher than anticipated |
| Informed Consent | agreement to participate in research in the full knowledge of the research context and participant rights |
| Anonymity | keeping participants or clients identity away from publication or any inadvertent disclosure |
| Confidentiality | keeping data from participants or clients away from publication |
| Intervention | research that makes alteration to peoples lives beyond the specific research setting in some cases because there is an intention to ameliorate specific human conditions |
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