English

Question	Answer
Vegetative stage	reflexive sounds sounds of discomfort or need 0-4 months
cooing stage	vocal play open mouthed vowel sounds comfort sounds 4-7 months
babbling stage	repeated patterns of vowel and consonant sounds 6-12 months
proto-words stage	word like sounds used for the same meanings accompanying gestures 9-12 months
Holophrastic Stage	One word utterances 12-18 months
Two-Word Stage	Two-Word Combinations 18-24 months
Telegraphic Stage	Three or more words combined 24-36 months
Post-Telegraphic Stage	More grammatically complex combinations 36+ months
Noam Chomsky	Believes that learning takes place through an innate brain mechanism, pre-programmed with the ability to acquire grammatical structures. He calls this the Language Acquisition Device He sees it as significant that human languages share similarities, which he describes as universal grammar Supporting this is the evidence that children from around the world develop at a similar rate in similar stages of development
Vocal Chords Phonemic Expansion Phonemic Contraction	Phonemic Expansion - increasing the variety of sounds you can make Phonemic Contraction - reducing the number of sounds you can make
Alan Cruttenden (1974)	Compared adults and children to see if they could predict football results from listening to the scores, finding that adults could successfully predict winners by the intonation placed on the first team, but children (up to age 7) were less accurate
Consonant Sounds	Sounds are produced by air from the lungs passing across the vocal chords. The production of consonant sounds (closure) is affected by; the manner of articulation (how the air stream is controlled), the place of articulate (where it occurs); to make sounds we can use our lips, tongue, teeth and the roof of our mouth or a combination of these, if the sound is voiced or unvoiced (by vibrating or not vibrating the vocal chords)
Vowels	Sounds with no friction or closure
Dipthong	Vowel with a change during a syllable
Age - 2 years	Phonemes - p, b, m, d, n, w, t
Age 2 and a half years	k, g, h, n
Age - 3 years	Phoneme - f, s, j, l
Age 3 and a half	Phonemes - tS, d3, x, z, S, r
Age - 4 years+	T, J, 3
Plosives	Created when the airflow is blocked for a brief time (also called stop consonants) voiced - p, t, k unvoiced - b, d, g
Fricatives	Created when the airflow is only partially blocked and air moves through the mouth in a steady stream voiced - f, t( as in thigh), s, f (as in ship), h unvoiced - v, o (as in thy), z, 3 (as in leisure)
Affricatives	Created by putting plosives and fricatives together voiced - tf (as in church) unvoiced - d3 (as in judge)
Approximants	Similar sounds to vowels Voiced - w, r Unvoiced - j
Laterals	Created by placing the tongue on the ridge of the teeth and then air moving down the side of the mouth Voiced - I
Nasals	Produced by air moving through the nose Voiced - m,n
Types of phonological mistake	One feature of child language acquisition is that children master language by a 'trial and error' approach. This is taken by come linguists as evidence that learning is taking place; phonological development seems to also depend on physical ability to produce sounds
Deletion	Omitting the final consonant in words Do(g), Cu(p)
Substitution	Substituting one sound for another (especially the 'harder' sounds that develop later, such as f)
Addition	Adding an extra vowel sound to the ends of words, creating a CVCV pattern e.g. doggie
Assimilation	Changing one consonant for vowel for another (as in the early plosive sounds 'd' and 'b' 'gog' for 'dog'
Reduplication	Repeating a whole syllable Dada, Mama
Consonant cluster reductions	Consonant clusters can be difficult to articulate, so children reduce them to smaller units 'pider' for 'spider'
Deletion of unstressed syllables	Omitting the opening syllable in polysyllabic words 'nana' for 'banana'
Jean Berko and Roger Brown (1960's)	They found that a child who refferred to a plastic inflatable fish as 'fis', substituting the s sounds for the sh, couldn't link an adult's use of fis with the same object
Proto-words	An invented word that has a consistent meaning for a child and their carers
Rate of lexical development How many words at 12 months? How many words at 24 months? How many words at 36 months?	12 months - 50 words 24 months - 200 words 36 months - 2000 words
Content words	Usually nouns, verbs and adjectives; have a dictionary definition; semantic function
Function words	Such as determiners, prepositions and auxiliary verbs; grammatical function
Katherine Nelson 1973 Four categories for first words	Naming (things/people) Actions/Events Describing/Modifying things Personal/Social
Katherine Nelson (1973)	She found that 60% of first words were nouns. Verbs formed the second largest group, and were used with actions or location words like 'up' and 'down'. Modifiers came third and Personal/Social words made up about 8% of the sample
B.F. Skinner	He said that children imitate and copy adults and, as they get either positive or negative reinforcement for their verbal behavior, they are conditioned into using the right language
Overextension	A feature of child's language where the words used to label something are stretched to include things that aren't normally part of that words meaning
Underextension	A feature of child's language where the word used to label is reduced to include only part of its normal meaning
Eve Clarke	Study of first words found that children base over-extensions on the physical qualities of objects and features such as taste, sound, movement, shape, size and texture
Leslie Rescorla - Types of overextensions Categorical Overestension	The name for one member of a category is extended to all members of the category Apple used for all round fruits 60% overextension
Leslie Rescorla - Types of overextensions Analogical overextension	A word for one object is extended to one in a different category; usually on the basis that it has some physical or functional connection Ball used for a round fruit 15% overextension
Leslie Rescorla - Types of overextensions Mismatch statements	One word sentences that appear quite abstract; child makes a statement about one object in relation to another Saying duck when looking at an empty pond 25% overextension
Jean Aitchisons stages of linguistic development 1 - Labelling	Linking words to the objects to which they refer, understanding that things can be labelled
Jean Aitchisons stages of linguistic development 2 - Packaging	Exploring the labels and to what they can apply Over/Under-extension occurs in order to eventually understand that range of a word's meaning
Jean Aitchisons stages of linguistic development 3 - Network Building	Making connections between words, understanding similarities and opposite meanings
Network Building Hyponymy Hypernym Hyponym	Hyponymy - the hierarchical structure that exists between lexical items Hypernym - is a superordinate i.e. a word that is more generic or general and can have more specific words under it Hyponym - is a more specific word within a category or under a Hypernym
Jean Piaget	Swiss psychologist Influential views about children's cognitive development He emphasized that children are active learners who use their environment and social interactions to shape their language Piaget linked linguistic development with an understanding of the concepts surrounding the words meanings, suggesting that children cannot be taught before they are ready
Jean Piaget's stages of children's linguistic development Sensorimotor	Up to 2 years old The child experiences the physical world through the senses and begins classifying the things in it; lexical choices, when they appear, tend to be concrete rather than abstract Object permanence develops - the concept that objects exist when out of sight
Jean Piaget's stages of children's linguistic development Pre-Operational	2-7 years Language and motor skills develop and become more competent Language is egocentric - either focused on the child or used by the child when no-one else is around
Jean Piaget's stages of children's linguistic development Concrete Operational	7-11 Children begin thinking logically about concrete events
Jean Piaget's stages of children's linguistic development Formal Operational	11+ Abstract reasoning skills develop
Eve Clarke	More recent research found that adjectives are among children's first 50 words however spatial adjectives are acquired later
Syntax	Syntactical advances allow children to order words into phrases and clauses, and make different types of utterances (simple, compound, complex) for different functions apart from declarative (interrogative and imperative require different word order)
Morphology	Morphological advances allow children to add inflections to words creating tense, marking distinctions between adjectives, showing possession and making plurals (inflection morphology), and experiment with language by adding prefixes and suffixed to make up words and to convert words from one class to another (derivational morphology)
Mean Length Utterance - MLU	Is a measure of children's ability to produce stretches of language; the number of morphemes is divided by the total number of utterances to find the average length. A higher MLU is taken to indicate a higher level of language proficiency
Stages of children's grammatical development One Word/ Holophrastic	One word utterance 12-18 months
Stages of children's grammatical development Two-word	Two words combined to create simple syntactical structures Subject + verb Verb + object 18-24 months
Stages of children's grammatical development Telegraphic	Three or more words joined in increasingly complex and accurate orders Subject + verb + object Subject + verb + complement Subject + verb + adverbial 24-36 months
Stages of children's grammatical development Post-Telegraphic	Increasing awareness of grammatical rules and irregularities Instead of saying 'runned' using 'ran' 36+ months
Noam Chomsky	His view of acquisition is built on the universal features of all language (for example nouns and verbs) along with phonological aspects (vowels and consonants). These are termed 'linguistic universals'. Children to Chomsky are equipped to discover the grammar of their language because they have an innate grammar. This, to him, means that acquiring language must be about more than just imitating adult speakers
One Word/ Holophrastic stage	The one word stage provides the building blocks for syntax to develop The term 'holophrastic' means whole phrase and is used to describe words that don't simply fullfil the naming purpose, but behave more like a short utterance
Two word stage	This stage is the beginning of syntactical development Once two words are joined the child can explore different combinations and learn correct English word order Roger Brown's 1970's study of two word sentences found that children from all cultures and countries make the same relationships between grammatical concepts
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Agent + action	Explanation;Did someone (the do-er) perform an action? Example; Daddy kick Context;Dad kicks ball
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Agent + affected	Explanation; Did someone do something to an object (done-to)? Example; Me ball Context; Child kicks ball
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Entity + attribute	Explanation; Is a person or object described? Example; Kitty big Context; Sees tigers in the zoo
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Action + affected	Explanation; Does an action affect an object?Example; Throw stick Context; Child throws stick
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Action + location	Explanation; Does an action occur in a place Example; Sit chair Context; Child sits on chair
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Entity + location	Explanation; Is an object located? Example; Spoon table Context; Spoon is on the table
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Possessor + possession	Explanation; Does an object have a possessor? Example; Daddy coat Context; Point's to dad's coat
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Nomination	Explanation; Is a person or object labelled? Example; that cake Context; That is a cake
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Recurrence	Explanation; Is an event repeated? Example; More ball Context; Finds second ball
Types of meaning relations in two-word utterances Negation	Explanation; Is something denied? Example; No ball Context; Has lost her ball
Telegraphic stage	Once a child can combine three or more words they are starting to make their meanings more explicit In this stage utterances are similar to the style and construction of a telegram in the function words are left out but context words are retained Early in the stage, verb inflections, auxiliary verbs, prepositions and determiners are all omitted As the child moves towards the post-telegraphic stage, these function words appear accurately in utterances Key developments take place in the construction of questions, negatives and pronouns

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