THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND METHODS.

The hypothetico-deductive method:Positivists believe this to be the most scientific method of finding accurate information, otherwise known as 'scientific knowledge'. 1.) Background reading & personal experience-study & everyday obsv. (Areas of interest) 2.) Formation (hypothesis)-sociologist formulates casual link (two events)3.) Appropriate form of study (isolate variables): questionnaire, interview & observation4.) Collecting (data): strict rules (Qs and Int.s carried out®validity and reliability) 5.) Analysing the data: Statistical models- ‘tests of confidence’ accuracy 6.) Confirming, modifying or rejecting hypothesis: WEAKNESSES 7.) Theory formation/confirmation: best explanation reliance until others improve on it

Theoretical approaches linked to positivism and quantitative research methods: Society largely determines how we think and act-puppets of society (Marxist basis of theory) – link to the influence of the mass media and class as a dominant factor of influenceSociety only exists (beliefs and activities-individuals interacting) – creative actors making society  (Link to Guffman (1959) and his dramaturgical model)Positivists; some form (structure); structural model : MAIN STRUCTURAL THEORIES:Structural functionalism:Parsons (1951): social facts-objective ‘facts’. Classic study-Suicide: A Study In Sociology- statistics on suicide; clear patterns (uncovered)  Marxism ‘Dialectical materialism’: economic and social laws (govern human behaviour); laws (dominant) Positivist ideas: modern Marxist (quantitative and qualitative ideas) Criticism:  Positivism largely linked: structural model (heavy focus towards to economic influence, failure to ‘think outside the box’ ) Counter-argument: Social constructionist perspective: symbolic interactionism Blumer (1962): closely linked (labelling theory)  Individuals work: society created by activities people and rules guide people Positivism: deductive framework, social constructionists (inductive one); observations (general statements vs. strong evidence within theories)

Quantitative research: the favored method of positivists: Surveys, questionnaires and case studies Surveys: Cross-sectional surveys: ‘snapshot’; gather information @ one particular time. Useful: finding out info. (part. Topic); quick and results collated and analysed (generalizable) HOWEVER: 1.) Indicators/questions: measure attitude (accurate) ®research not be valid 2.) Not provide information (period of time) Longitudinal surveys: Quantitative sociologists (interested in change); longitudinal survey Clear, ongoing image changes (attitudes and actions) Focus on research: Parker et al. (1998) – A longitudinal survey: North-West Longitudinal Study; 700 young people for five years, aged 14-18. Assess how ‘ordinary’ young people 1990s, developed attitudes and behaviour (relation to availability: illegal drugs, alongside alcohol and tobacco). Self-report questionnaire: administered personally (researchers). Start (research)-sample representative: gender, class and ethnicity). Attrition disproportionate.

KEY WORDS: Cross-sectional survey: Survey conducted (one time), no attempt follow up (people surveyed) Epistemological: Theories (knowledge) Hypothetico-deductive model: Research process (assoc. Physical sciences used by positivists) Indicator: Measurable social phenomenon; immeasurable concept, e.g. church attendance to measure religious beliefs Inductive: Way of reasoning, starts from particular and works towards the general.  Social research-identifying patterns and trends; developing hypotheses and theories based on them. Longitudinal survey: Survey carried out over considerable number of years (same group of people Reliability: Research; strictly comparable Social fact: Used by Durkheim; certain objective ‘facts’ exist in society; not influenced by individuals Survey: Large-scale piece (quantitative research) ; general statements (particular population) Validity: Show what research sets out.

Theory and interpretive research (Weber and verstehen): Durkheim’s attitude; society (explored similar way-physical sciences)  Weber: society constituted thinking, (variety – influences). Weber: defined sociology as a ‘science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to arrive at causal explanations.’

Symbolic interactionalism and labelling theory:Symbolic interactionism Bulmer (1962): social objects, events and situations, all interpreted by people (various socially learned ways); people respond (learned meanings)

Structuration theory:Giddens: Structuration theory (1984) Research (Giddens): must understand motivations and actions (indv.) before see how structures can ‘exist’ Good example: (difference) between objective facts and perception of facts. Foster’s (1995) ethnographic study (housing estate)-blocks of flats (East London). Objectively, estate had a high crime rate (official stats.). Residents-not perceive threatening, existence of ‘informal social control’, PEOPLE EXPECTED CERTAIN LEVEL OF CRIME RATE.

KEY WORDS: Ethnography: Describe work anthropologists (study simple, small-scale societies), living with people and observing their daily lives. Used by sociologists (describe modern-day observation studies) Meaning: Word used by Blumer to describe the sense people make of a particular situation Phenomenological approaches (i.e. interactionism): stress how people would perceive and interact with one another.   Verstehen: Term first used by Weber in sociology, role of sociology understand partly by seeing through the eyes of those who are being studied.

Postmodernist research: Postmodernism: positive force (three main ways-research relevant): 1.) Introduced new methods and approaches to research 2.) Introduced different topics (study) 3.) Encouraged people-speak for themselves, allowing their narratives to stand without necessarily interpreting them.

Deconstruction: a new method: Baudrillard (1998): ‘narratives’ affect how we act/interact with other people. Uncover the linkages and possible patterns-underline narratives. Foucault: process of deconstruction like activities of an archaeologist (soc. carefully digs down layer after layer) ®explore construction of narratives. Postmodernist researcher concerned look @ how particular narratives emerge at different times.

EXAMPLES OF POSTMODERN RESEARCH:Reanalysing sociological concepts (Youth culture): Redhead (1993): youth culture has ‘no meaning’. Y.C. is a complex and ever-changing mixture of influences Redhead uses secondary data in his work, also uses writing of young sociology students (drawing upon current experiences of clubbing).

 FEMINISM AND METHODS: Current fragmentation of sociology, intellectual critiques 1970s: Firestone (1970) and Millett (1970): knowledge and methods are linked to gender. Men and women have different experiences and different starting points(construct knowledge) Harding (1987): three key elements (feminist methodology): 1.) Women’s experiences: a new resource: Most research devised and conducted by male sociologists, resulted in concentration on issues of interest to males. Women (different interests and perspectives, open up new areas for sociological investigation).2.) New purposes of social science: for women: Purpose (feminist sociological research): improve position of women. Committed and open about its commitment – feminist standpoint. 3.) Locating the researcher in the same critical plane as the subjects:Bridge the gap between female researchers and female subjects. Feminist researcher must examine all her ‘assumptions, beliefs and behaviors’. ‘Class, race and gender’ (subject) stated. Feminist researcher not appear ‘as an invisible, anonymous voice of authority, but as a real, historical individual with concrete, specific desires and interests.’ ABOVE IDEAS led to...in-depth interviewing/discussion and participant observation (particularly favored in feminist research).‘Women are more able to understand society than men and therefore their accounts are to be preferred.’

FOCUS GROUPS: Fem. Soc. Use focus groups (research). Wilkinson (1999)-method fits ethos (feminism). 1st: F.G. research less artificial emphasizes group interaction (normal part of social life). Women more likely to divulge true ‘lived experiences’ 2nd: F.R. minimize differences (power and status). F.G. even out the power (group of women chance take control over the discussion).3rd: Madriz (2000): F.G. consisted of ‘marginalized’ women-‘lower-socioeconomic-class women of colour’, able to make sense of their ‘experience of vulnerability and subjugation’

FEMINIST ETHNOGRAPHY:  Reinharz (1992): most effective way study women use ethnographic methods. Allow full documentation (women’s lives).  Allows researchers to see activities (viewpoint of women).Less exploitative.Skeggs (2001):In her ethnographic research she was seeking to ‘emphasize the words, voices and lives of the women. ‘

QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWING: In-depth interview (most used tool of research)-Bryman (2004) Oakley (1981): two women invl. Engaged (discussion) based on equality-interviewee (equal in power)- equal right decide on direction of discussion.Own research interviews (transition into motherhood). Oakley asked questions on a range of issues by the respondents. Felt by replying and advising the women, fulfilling criteria (fem. R.M.)

FOCUS ON RESEARCH:  (Bev Skeggs(1997)-Formations of class and gender):  Beverly Skeggs studies 83 White w-c young women (period of 12 years)-ethnographic measures (participant observation and in-depth interviews). Research BEGAN studying women-health and social course @ college in North-West of England. Skeggs followed them through their education, employment and family lives. Skeggs (work-feminist), politically committed providing ‘marginalized’ women to express themselves, wished to show how young women’s perceptions of the society they encountered influenced their actual behaviour. Skeggs argues she didn’t exploit the women (own career benefit), that her research gave her ‘subjects’ a sense of self-worth. That she ‘provided a mouthpiece against injustice, particularly with regard to disclosures of violence, child abuse and sexual harassment.’

KEY TERMS: Deconstruction: breaking down of a taken-for-granted subject to uncover the assumptions within it.  Transgress: cross accepted academic boundaries.   

Positivism and quantitative research methods.

Interpretive sociology and qualitative methods.

Postmodern and feminist methodologies.