Understanding Psychology: Chapter 1-3 Notes

Chapter 1: Intro to Psychology

 

MODULE 1-1 (1) - Intro to Psychology

• Introduction to Psychology

• Word Bank

  • Clinical = mental health disorder

  • Psychology = scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• Subfields of Psychology

  • Behavioral

    • Behavioral Genetics

      • Studies inheritance of traits related to behavior

    • Behavioral Neuroscience

      • Examines biological basis of behavior

  • Clinical 

    • Clinical Psychology

      • Deal with study , diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

    • Clinical Neuroscience/Neuropsychology

      • Unities the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders

  • Cognitive

    • Focuses on the study of higher mental processes

  • Counseling

    • Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.

  • Cross-cultural

    • Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups

  • Developmental

    • Examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death

  • Educational

    • Concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as relationship between motivation and school performance

  • Environmental

    • Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment

  • Evolutionary

    • Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
    • Experimental processes of sesing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

  • Forensic

    • Focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories

  • Health

    • Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

  • Industrial/Organizational

    • Concerned with psychology of workplace

  • Personality

    • Focuses on consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another

  • Program Evaluation

    • Focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as Head Start preschool program, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals

  • Psychology of Women

    • Focuses on issues in discrimination against women and causes of violence against women

  • School

    • Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or behavioral problems

  • Social

    • Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others

  • Sport

    • Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise

• Biological Foundations of Behavior

  • People are biological organisms

  • Behavioral neuroscience

    • Subfield of psychology
    • Focuses on how the brain, nervous system and other biological aspects of the body determine behavior

• How do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think About the World?

  • Experimental Process

    • Studies the process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

    • Subspecialty

      • Cognitive Psychology - Focuses on higher mental process, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving

• Breakdown of Where US Psychologists Work

  • Professional Services

  • Professional Services

  • Teaching

  • Research

  • Management/Supervision

  • Other Work Activities

  • Accounting/Finance/Contracts

  • Employee Relations

  • Sales

• Psychologists: A Portrait

  • Historically, women actively discouraged from becoming psychologists

    • Women now outnumber men in the field

  • Consequences of racial & ethic minority underrepresentation among psychologists:

    • Field is diminished by lack of diverse perspectives and talents

    • Deters new members from entering the field

    • Minorities possibly underserved: people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethic group

• Education/Careers for a Psychologist

  • Education

    • PhD - Doctor of Philosophy

    • PsyD - Doctor of Psychology

    • Master’s Degree

    • Bachelor’s Degree

  • Careers

    • Administrator

    • Serving as a counselor

    • Providing direct care

    • Education

    • Business

    • Government

Chapter 2: Psychological Research

 

MODULE 2-1 (4) - Scientific Method

Scientific Method:

Approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest

 

Scientific Method Process 

• Identify questions of interest stemming from

  • Behavior and phenomenon requiring explanation

  • Prior research finding

  • Curiosity, creativity, insight

• Formulate an explanation

  • Specify a theory

  • Develop a hypothesis

• Carry out research

  • Devise an operational definition of the hypothesis

  • Start research method

  • Collect data

  • Analyze data

 

Theory 

• Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest

• Provide framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles

• Example diffusion of responsibility

  • With more bystanders in an emergency situation the smaller share of each person feels

  • Developed by Bibb Latane and John Darley

 

Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions

• Hypothesis: Prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested

• Operational Definition: Translation of hypothesis into specific testable procedures that can be measured and observed

 

Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons

• Permits them to places bits of observations with a coherent framework

• Help psychologists to make deductions about unexplained phenomena

• Develop ideas for future investigation

 

MODULE 2-2 (5) - Conducting Psychological Research

• What research methods do psychologists use?

• How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies

 

Introduction to MODULE 5

 

Research

• Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge

• Key to understanding the accuracy of hypotheses and theories

 

Descriptive Research

• Systematic investigation of a person, group, or pattern of behavior

• Several types of descriptive research

 

Archival Examples

• Existing data are examined to test a hypothesis:

  • Census docs

  • College record

  • Online databases

  • Newspapers clippings

• Advantage - inexpensive

• Disadvantage - problems with using existing data

• Data may not be in form that allows researcher to test hypothesis fully

 

Naturalistic Observation

• Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior

  • Does not make change in situation

Advantage - Sample of what people do in their natural habitat

Disadvantage - Inability to control any factors of interest

 

Survey Research

• Asked a series of questions about their behavior, attitude, and thoughts

• Advantage: can infer how a larger group would reponds if a representative is  surveyed

• Disadvantage - results would be inaccurate if sample is not representative

  • Survey respondents may not want to admit to holding social undesirable attitudes

 

Case Study

• In-depth, immense investigation of people of an individual or small group of people

  • Often include psychological testing

• Advantage - can use insights to improve our understanding of people in general

• Disadvantage - unique individuals make it impossible for generalizations

 

Correlational Research

• Research in which relationship between 2 sets of variables is examined to determine:

  • Whether they  are associated or correlated

  • Variables: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change , or vary, in some way

• Correlation coefficient - Represent the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables

  • Value can range from +1 to -1

  • Positive - As the variable of one increases, so will the value of the other variable

  • Negative - As the variable of one increases, value of the other variable decreases

  • Lack of relationship - value near 0 indicates no correlation

• Disadvantage - inability to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships

 

Experimental Research

Experiment: Investigation between 2 or more variable by product

 

Experimental Groups/Control groups

• Treatment

  • Manipulation implemented by experimenter

• Experimental group

  • Any group participating in experiment that receives treatment

• Control Group

 

Independent variable: variable manipulated by experimenter

Dependent variable: variable that is measured

• Expected  to change as a result of changes in the independent variable

• Dependent on the actions of the research participants that are taking part in the experiment

 

Random Assignment to condition : Participants assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance

 

Significant Outcome: statistically meaningful results

• Makes it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses

 

Replicated Research: research that is repeated in other settings, etc.

 

MODULE 2-3 (6) Critical Research Issues

 

Ethics of Research

Guidelines that protects participants

• Protection of participants

• Right of participants to privacy regarding their bahe=avior

• Participations research is completely voluntary

• Informing Participants about natures of Procedures before participation in experiment

• All experiments must be reviews by independent panel before being conducted

 

Informed consent: document signed by participants

Debriefing: full explanation after

 

Should Animals Be Used In Research?

 

• Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain

• Procedures that subjected to animal to distress are permitted:

  • When alternate procedure is unavailable

  • When research is justified by its prospective values

• Provides greater experimental control over nonhumans

• Procedures that might not be possible with people can be carried out.

 

Threats to Experimental Validity: Diversity in Research Subjects

 

Most research uses Intro Psych Students

WEIRD - Western Education, Rich Democreatic Culture

 

Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias

 

Experimental Bias - factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable

• Experimenter expectations

• Participation expectations

 

Placebo - False treatment without any significant chemical properties 

Double-blind procedure - Keeping experimenter and participant blind to the nature of the drug administered

 

END OF CHAPTER 2

 

Chapter 3 - Neuroscience & Behavior

 

MODULE 3-1 (7) - Neurons

 

Structure of Neurons

Neurons: Nerve Cells

Consist of cell body that contains nucleus

 

Distinctive Feature of neurons 

 

Dendrite - cluster of fibers at end of neuron that receives messages from other neurons

Axon - part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons.

Terminal Buttons - sends messages

 

How Neurons Fire

Neurons follow an all-or-none law - rule that neurons are either on or off

Resting state - negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron

Before a neuron is triggered

 

Action potential - electric nerve

 

Speed of Transmission

Speed in which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by

• Axon’s Size
• Thickness of myelin sheath

 

Neurons differ in terms of

• Quickness of impulse moving along axon
• Potential firing rate

 

Intensity of stimulus determines fire rate

 

Mirror Neurons

Specialized Neurons that fire, when a person:

• enacts a particular behavior

 

Discovery of mirror neurons suggest that humans’ capacity to mitate other may be a inbor behavior

 

Helps in explaining how and why humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions

 

Possible basis for: 

• empathy feeling

• development of language in humans

 

Where Neurons Meet: Bridging The Gap

 

Synapse: Space between 2 neurons when axon of sending neuron communicates dendrites of receiving neuron by using chemical messages

 

Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite ( an sometimes the cell body) of receiving neuron

 

Not every neuron is capable of receiving chemical message carried by  particular neurotransmitter

 

Successful chemical communication is possible only when neuro

 

Types of chemical messages delivered by neurotransmitters: 

• Excitatory message

If neurotransmitters remained at the side of the synapse, it would lead to:

• Receiving nero's awash, in a continual chemical bath

• Producing constant simulation of or coinhibilition of receiving neurons

• Effective communications would no longer be possible

 

Reuptake: reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal buttons 

• Understanding of reuptake has lead to development of certain

•  drugs that treat psychological disorders

  • SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

  • Reduces the symptoms of depression.

 

MODULE 3-2 (8): Nervous System and Endocrine System

 

Central/Peripheral Nervous System

 

Central Nervous System: parts of the nervous system that includes brain and spinal cord

• Spinal Cords: Bundle of neurons that leave the brain an runs down the length of the back

 

Reflex: Automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus

 

Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes:

• Sensory Neurons (afferent)

• Motor Neurons (efferent)

 

Peripheral Nervous Systems: made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from spinal cord and brain and reaching extremities of body

 

Includes

• Somatic Division

• Autonomic Division

 

Activating Divisions of Autonomic Nervous Systems

Autonomic Nervous system consists of

• Sympathetic Division

• Parasympathetic Division

 

Evolutionary Foundations of Nervous System

• Evolutionary Psychology - identifies behavior patterns

• Behavioral genetics - study of effects of heredity on behavior

 

Endocrine System: Chemicals/Glands

• Endocrine system - chemical communication network that sends messages

• Hormones - circulates through the blood

• Pituitary gland - major component  of endocrine system aka “master gland”

  • Secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of endocrine system

 

MODULE 3-3 (9) - Brain

• How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain?

• What are the major parts of the brain, and what behavior is each part responsible?

• How do the 2 halves of the brain operate independently?

• How can an understanding of the nervous system help us find ways to alleviate disease and pain?

 

Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• Records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of skull

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

• Provides detailed, 3D computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body

 

Positron emission tomography (PET)

• Shows biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment

  • Requires radioactive tracer injection

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

• Causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity by exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field

 

Central Core: “Old Brain”

• Controls basic functions such as eating sleeping and is common to all vertebrates

 

Hindbrain contains:

• Medulla: Controls critical body functions, such as breathing and heartbeat

• Pons: Bridge in Hindbrain

  • Acts as transmitter of motor information

  • Involved in regulating sleep

• Cerebellum: Part of the brain that controls bodily balance

• Reticular Formation: Extends from medulla through the pons, passing through midbrain and forebrain

  • Produces arousal of body

• Thalamus: Part of brain located in middle of central core that acts primarily to rely information about the senses

• Hypothalamus: Tiny part of brain, located below the thalamus

  • Maintains homeostasis

  • Produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of species

    • Eating, self-protection, sex

 

Limbic System: Beyond Central Core

Limbic System: Part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction

• Includes amygdala and hippocampus

• Plays important role in emotion, learning, and memory, along with hippocampus

 

Sometimes referred as “animal brain” due to similarities in structures and functions to those of other mammals

 

Cerebral Cortex: “New Brain”

 

Responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain

 

Lobes: 4 major sections of cerebral cortex

• Frontal

• Parietal

• Temporal

• Occipital

Sulci: deep grooves in cortex that physically divides 4 sets of lobes

 

Motor Area of Cortex

 

Motor area: Responsible for body’s voluntary movement

• Well mapped: researchers have identified amount and relative location of cortical tissue used for movement in specifics parts of body

 

Sensory Area of Cortex

 

Sensory area: Site in the brian of the tissue that corresponds to each sense with the degree of sensitivity related to amount of tissue 

• Example: somatosensory area: in parietal lobe; specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in particular location of body 

• Auditory area in temporal lobe

• Visual Area in occipital lobe

 

Association Areas of Cortex

 

Association Areas: Site of higher mental processes

• Thought, language, memory, speech

Example Phineas Gage, railroad worker accident

• Damage to association area

Aphasia: result from injuries to association areas of the brain, and create problems with language

• Broca’s aphasia

• Wenicke’s aphasia

 

Neuroplasticity and Brain

 

Neuroplasticity

• Changes in the brain related to the addition of new neurons that occur throughout the lifespan

• New interconnections between neurons

• Reorganizations of info-porcessions areas

 

Neurogenesis - Creation of new neurons in certain areas of the brain during adulthood

 

Specialization of Hemispheres: 2 Brains or 1?

• Brain is divided into 2 roughly mirror-image halves
• Hemispheres: Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location
• Lateralization: Dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions

  • Language

 

Split Brain: Exploring 2 Hemispheres

 

Split-brain patients

• Corpus callosum surgically cut

  • Last resort treatment for severe epilepsy

 

END OF CHAPTER 3