Flashcards
memory 2
Flashcards do conjunto (46)
- 1Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interferenceExplanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference
- 2What is the definition of interference?Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.
- 3What is the definition of proactive interference?Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
- 4What is the definition of retroactive interference?Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is again greater when the memories are similar.
- 5A detailed explanation of how interference might result in forgetting in long term memory, including the importance of similarity*Interference has been proposed mainly as an explanation for forgetting in LTM.
*Once information has reached LTM, it is more or less permanent.
*Therefore, any forgetting of LTM's is most likely because we can't get access to them even though they are available.
*Interference between memories makes location harder - 'forgetting'. - 6A detailed explanation of how interference might result in forgetting in long term memory, including the importance of similarityInterference is worse when the memories are similar as discovered by John McGeoch and William McDonald.
Procedure:
*Both studied retroactive interference by changing amount of similarity between two sets of materials.
*Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. Then learned new list.
*Six groups of participants who had to learn different types of lists.
1. Synonyms - words with same meanings as originals.
2. Antonyms - words with opposite meanings to originals.
3. words unrelated to the original ones.
4. nonsense syllables.
5. three-digit numbers.
6. no new list - these participants just rested. - 7A detailed explanation of how interference might result in forgetting in long term memory, including the importance of similarityFindings: *Participants then recalled original list of words, performance depended on nature of second list.
*Most similar material produced worst recall.
*This shows interference is strongest when memories are similar. - 8Evaluation of this theory of how we forget including supporting evidence and evaluation of that evidence***
- 9Evaluation of this theory of how we forget including supporting evidence and evaluation of that evidence***
- 10Evaluation of this theory of how we forget including supporting evidence and evaluation of that evidence***
- 11Evaluation of this theory of how we forget including supporting evidence and evaluation of that evidence***
- 12What is the definition of retrieval failure?A form of forgetting. It occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
- 13What is the definition of encoding specificity principle?This states that if a cue is to help us recall information it has to be present at encoding (when we learn material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it.)
- 14What is the definition of context-dependent forgetting?External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.
- 15What is the definition of state-dependent forgetting?Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
- 16What is the definition of cue?A 'trigger' of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning. For example, cues may be external (environmental context) or internal (mood or degree of drunkness.)
- 17A detailed explanation of encoding specificity principle and different types of cue*Tulving reviewed research into retrieval failure and discovered a consistent pattern to the findings.
*Summarised this pattern to the encoding specificity principle.
*States that if a cue is to help us to recall information, it has to be present at encoding (learning material) and retrieval (recalling it.)
*Follows from this that if cues are available at encoding and retrieval are different, there will be some forgetting.
*Some cues linked to the material to-be-remembered in a meaningful way. Example: the cue in STM may lead recall of all sorts of info related to STM.
*Other cues are encoded at the same time of learning but not in meaningful way.
*External Cues - Context Dependent Learnng
*Internal Cues - State-Dependent Learning - 18Detailed description of context-dependent forgetting - Godden and Baddeley's 1975 study*Carried out an interesting study of deep sea divers working underwater.
*A matter of life or death for divers to remember instructions given before diving about their work underwater.
*Divers learned a list of words with underwater or on land and then asked to recall words words either underwater or on land; four conditions.
G1: Learn land - recall land
G2: Learn land - recall water
G3: Learn water - recall land
G4: Learn water - recall water - 19Detailed description of context-dependent forgetting - Godden and Baddeley's 1975 study*2 conditions, environmental contexts of learning and recall matched, whereas in other two they did not.
*Accurate recall 40% lower in non matching conditions.
*External cues available at learning were different from ones at recall, lead to retrieval failure. - 20Detailed description of state-dependent forgettning including Carter and Cassaday's 1998 study*Looked at the effect of anti-histimines.
*Gave them to participants.
*Had mild sedative effect making participants slightly drowsy.
*Creates internal physiological state different from the 'normal' state of being awake and alert.
*Participants had to learn list of words and passages of prose and then call information - creating 4 conditions.
G1: Learn on drug - recall on it
G2: Learn on drug - recall not on it
G3: Learn not on drug - recall when not on it
G4: Learn not on drug - recall when not on it - 21Detailed description of state-dependent forgetting including Carter and Cassaday's 1998 study*In conditions when there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on memory test was significantly worse.
*When cues are absent, more forgetting. - 22An evaluation of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting including evaluation of research that supports it***
- 23An evaluation of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting including evaluation of research that supports it***
- 24An evaluation of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting including evaluation of research that supports it***
- 25An evaluation of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting including evaluation of research that supports it***
- 26An evaluation of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting including evaluation of research that supports it***
- 27What is the definItion of EWT?Ability of people to remember the detail of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information, leading questions and anxiety.
- 28What is the definition of misleading information?Incorrect information given to eyewitness usually after the event - post event discussion. Can take many forms: leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses or other people.
- 29What is the definition of leading questions?A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer e.g. 'Was the knife in the accuser's left hand?'
- 30What is post-event discussions?Occurs when there is more then one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or other people. May influence the accuracy of each witnesses recall of the event.
- 31What is the response bias explanation?*Suggests wording of the question has no real effect on the participants' memories but just influences on how they decided to answer.
- 32What is the substitution explanation?The wording of a leading question actually changes the participants memory of the film clip - Loftus and Palmer.
- 33How misleading information in the form of leading questions effects EWT including two possible explanations for how it might affect it and description of Loftus and Palmer1. Response bias explanation suggests the wording of the question has no real effects on participants memories, but influences how they decide to answer. Using word 'smashed', encourages them to choose higher speed limit.
2. Substitution explanation suggests the wording of a leading question actually changes the participants memory of the film clip. Demonstrated because participants who originally heard 'smashed' later more likely to report seeing broken glass (was none) than those who heard 'hit.' Critical verb altered memory of accident. - 34How misleading information in the form of leading questions effects EWT including two possible explanations for how it might affect it and description of Loftus and PalmerProcedure: Loftus and Palmer arranged for participants to watch film clips of car accidents and then gave them questions about accident. Participants asked leading question of how fast the cars were going when they hit each other?
Leading Q because verb 'hit' suggests speed cars going. Five groups of pps each given different verb; hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed.
Findings: Mean calculated speed for each participant group. Vern contacted 31.5mph, smashed = 40.5. Leading question biased recall. - 35A detailed description of how misleading information in the form of post-event discussion affects EWT including an explanation for why this happens and a description of Gabbert et al*Co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other , their eyewitness testimonies become contaminated. This is because they combine misinformation from other witnesses with their own memories.
- 36A detailed description of how misleading information in the form of post-event discussion affects EWT including an explanation for why this happens and a description of Gabbert et alProcedure: Studied participants in pairs.
Each participant watched video of same crime, filmed from different points of view - each participant could see points of view other could not. Both participants discussed what they had seen and completed individual test of recall.
Findings: Researchers found 71% participants recalled parts of situation did not see in video but picked up in discussion. Corresponding figure in control group was 0%. Concluded witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe they are wrong - phenomenon memory conformity. - 37Evaluation of EWT****
- 38What is anxiety?A state of emotional and physical arousal. The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical changes: increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations, but can affect accuracy and detail of EWT.
- 39What is weapons focus effect?This refers to an eyewitness’s concentration on a weapon to the exclusion of other details of a crime. In a crime where a weapon is involved, it is not unusual for a witness to be able to describe the weapon in much more detail than the person holding it.
- 40What is tunnel theory of memory?Argues that a witnesses attention narrows to focus on a weapon, because it is the source of anxiety.
- 41What is Yerkes-Dodson Law?States performance will increase with stress, but only to certain extent where it will decrease drastically.
- 42Detailed description of why anxiety might reduce accuracy of EWT and the evidence that support thisAnxiety creates physiological in body which prevents us paying attention to important cues, recall is worse. One approach studying anxiety and EWT is looking at the effect of weapons.
- 43Detailed description of why anxiety might reduce accuracy of EWT and the evidence that support thisJohnson and Scott
Procedure: Led participants to believe they were taking part in lab study. While seated in waiting room, participants heard argument in next room. 'Low-anxiety condition': man then walked through waiting room carrying a pen with grease on his hands. High-anxiety condition: heard same argument, accompanied with breaking glass; man walked out of room holding paper knife with blood.
Findings: Pps picked out man in 50 photos, 49% who saw man carrying pen identified correctly. 33% with man carrying paper knife. Tunnel theory: focus on weapon because of anxiety. - 44Detailed description of why anxiety might increase accuracy of EWT and the evidence that support thisThe stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through psychological arousal within the body. The fight or flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event because we become more aware of the cues in the situation.
- 45Detailed description of why anxiety might increase accuracy of EWT and the evidence that support thisChristianson and Hubinette
Method: Questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden 4-15 months after the event. The witnesses were either victims (e.g. the bankteller, high anxiety condition) or bystanders (employee or customer, low anxiety condition.)
Results: All witnesses had good memory for the details of the robbery (75%) accuracy. Those witnesses were the most anxious had best recall. - 46What is the cognitive interview?1. Report everything - witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even tho it may seem irrelevant or the witness doesn't seem confident about it - these may trigger important memories.
2. Reinstate the context - witness should return to the original crime scene 'in their mind' and imagine the environment and their emotions.
3. Reverse the order - events should be recalled in different chronological order to the original sequence - end to beginning or middle to beginning - done to prevent expectations of event and dishonesty.
4. Change perspective - Witnesses should recall the incident from other peoples perspective - done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall.
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- FlashCards sobre memory 2, criado por Millie Carless em 11-06-2018.
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- Millie Carless
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