Flashcards
PRC - Lecture 3
Flashcards do conjunto (88)
- 1Nomenclature. If a disease has a suffix of '-itis' what does this mean? Give 2 examples.An inflammatory process of the disease.
i.e. Appendicitis, Dermatitis (appendix and skin inflammation). - 2Nomenclature. What is meant when a word has the suffix '-pathy'. Give an example.An abnormal state, lacking in specific characteristics. A generalisation, with not 100% diagnosis.
i.e. Lymphadenopathy - a disease affecting the lymph nodes. - 3Nomenclature. What is meant when a term ends in the suffix '-oma'? Give 4 examples.A tumour has formed.
i.e. Lipoma (benign tumour of fatty tissue), Melanoma (tumour of melanin- forming cells- normally a malignant tumour associated with skin cancer), Lymphoma (cancer of the lymphnodes) and Carcinoma (an epithelial tumour). - 4What is the most common cancer in the world TODAY?Lung Cancer
- 5What is the sex ratio of people suffering with lung cancer (M:F)?3:1
- 6What is the most common age range for lung cancer?50 -75
- 7What is the incidence per year in Europe? What is the incidence per year in US? What is the incidence per year in Africa?53/ 100,000 per year in Europe.
58/ 100,000 per year in US.
8/ 100,000 per year in Africa. - 8Even though Lung cancer is only found to be 13% of all new cancer cases, what is it's mortality rate?It accounts for 22% of all cancer deaths.
- 9What can we conclude from statistics about Lung Cancer's Geographical variation?US, Europe > Africa, Southern Asia
- 10What were the 4 most common cancers in 2011?- Breast
- Lung
- Prostate
- Bowel - 11In 2011, stats show that breast cancer was the most common cancer in Females. What was found about its survival rate?Extremely high if caught in the early stages - highlights the importance of SCREENING.
- 12In 2011, prostate cancer was found to be the leading, most common cancer in males, particularly in old men. What is known about its cancer, thus its prognosis though?Prostate cancer is a very slow developing cancer.
If it is diagnosed in a 75yr old man for example, treatment (although very effective) is not recommended since the likelihood of the man surviving the life of the cancer is v. low and it will not become detrimental to the individual until he has passed MOST likely. - 13Give 3 aetiological factors associated with Lung Cancer.- Tobacco Smoking (cigarette, cigars, pipes)
- Radiation (i.e. uranium miners who work in close association with radon gas) - minimal risk factor recently however.
- Asbestos - 14Give 5 well-known symptoms of Lung Cancer.- Persistent cough
- Coughing up blood
- Persistent breathlessness
- Unexplained tiredness and weight loss
- An ache or pain when breathing or coughing. - 15What 2 symptoms of Lung Cancer can also be signs of TB?- Persistent cough
- Coughing up blood - 16In what way do chemicals in cigarette smoke cause pathogenesis?- Cause deletion and changes to DNA sequences within chromosomes.
- Also epigenetic effects such as methylation, causing changes in gene expression. - 17What are 2 specific examples of chemicals in cigarette smoke causing Lung cancer?- p53 mutation by benzpyrene (found in coal/ tar- it's metabolites are mutagenic and highly carcinogenic) this can prevent the tumour suppressor gene from functioning correctly.
- Mutations of genes on chromosome 3p, which can result in carcinomas. - 18What is the morphology of Lung Cancer under a microscope?Cells appear disordered and not sufficient for gas exchange.
- 19What is meant by metastasis?Secondary malignant growth - the cancer has spread from the original primary source.
- 20In what way is metastasis taken into account when diagnosing lung cancer and looking at its aetiology?The cancer could have spread to the lungs from another place in the body (metastasis) and be down to another aetiological factor other than smoking.
- 21What is the prognosis of Lung Cancer? Why is this so?- Only 6% of people live longer than 5 years after diagnosis with Lung Cancer, which is an extremely low survival rate.
- At stage 4 lung cancer, which is very severe, less than 1% of patients survive after diagnosis.
- An aggressive tumour; poor prognosis. - 22What is meant by a Primary disease when classifying them? Give an example of a disease.- Initial disease with no other disease in the background.
- i.e. Diabetes mellitus Type 1 - early onset diabetes common in children. - 23What is meant by a Secondary disease when classifying them? Give an example.A disease that follows and results from an earlier disease.
i.e. Kidney disease, after a couple of years in diabetic patients. - 24What is meant by an acute disease? What is a characteristic cell of acute diseases?- Rapid onset and short course.
Neutrophils (i.e. in acute inflammation) - 25What is meant by a chronic disease? What are 3 characteristic cells of this type of disease?Slow progress and long duration (they can completely regress or then can last for the duration of the patient's life).
i.e. Lymphocytes, fibroblasts and histeocytes. - 26Define infarction.Obstruction of blood supply to an organ or tissue.
- 27List 4 different types of injury which can induce ACUTE inflammation.- Infarction.
- Bacterial infections.
- Toxins.
- Trauma. - 28What 3 stages are induced during acute inflammation.- Vascular changes.
- Neutrophil recruitment.
- Mediators. - 29What 3 things take place during 'vascular changes' for acute inflammation.- Vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels).
- Vascular permeability increases.
- Increased adhesion of WBCs. - 30What 2 cellular events take place in the tissue as a result of Acute inflammation?- Cellular recruitment
- Activation of neutraphils - 31Why do the venules and arterioles dilate during Acute inflammation?To decrease the blood pressure.
- 32What happens as a result of 'increased permeability' of blood vessels during Acute inflammation?- Leakage of plasma proteins into surrounding tissue/ Oedema.
- Accumulation of fluid and proteins in extravascular tissue/ Interstition. - 33If acute inflammation is successful, what 4 things happen?- Clearance of injurious stimuli.
- Clearance of mediators and acute inflammatory cells.
- Replacement of injured cells.
- Returns to normal function. - 34If acute inflammation takes longer than expected to fix the injured tissue, what structure can form?Abscess formation. This can be drained in a longer process, but the tissue won't return to its function as effectively.
- 35If a tissue heals via acute inflammation slowly/ through pus formation... and it's tissue's function does not return effectively - what is the most common reason for this?Scar tissue forms via Fibrosis and tissue loses part of its function.
- 36What are the 4 main causes of Chronic inflammation?- Viral infections.
- Chronic infections.
- Persistent injury to the same tissue.
- Autoimmune diseases. - 37What 3 processes take effect during Chronic Inflammation?- Angiogenesis.
- Mononuclear cell infiltrate - mainly macrophages and lymphocytes collect at the site of injury to help clear away the debris.
- Fibrosis - scarring of tissue. - 38Define angiogenesis.New blood vessels form.
- 39What is meant by a congenital disease?A disease/ physical abnormality which has been present from birth.
- 40What are 2 different types of Congenital disease found?- Genetic
- Non-genetic - 41Give 2 examples of congenital, genetic disease.- Down's syndrome
- Cystic fibrosis - 42What is meant by a congenital, non-genetic disease? Give an example.Abnormalities in development/ injury to the foetus during pregnancy which can result in deformities (or brain damage etc) for example i.e. Thalidomide.
- 43What is meant by an 'acquired' disease when classifying them?A disorder/ medical condition which develops post-foetally - it is acquired.
- 44What are the six types of 'acquired' disease?- Inflammatory diseases
- Disorders of immunity
- Haemodynamic diseases
- Traumatic/ accidental damage
- Metabolic & nutritional disorders
- Degenerative disorders - 45In terms of CONGENITAL disease, what are the 2 main classifications of a GENETIC, congenital disease? Give an example of each.Inherited from parents i.e. Cystic fibrosis.
Mutations before birth i.e. Down's syndrome. - 46In terms of CONGENITAL disease, what is an example of a non- genetic disease?i.e. a Cardiac abnormality caused by maternal Rubella infection during pregnancy.
- 47How does an ACQUIRED inflammatory disorder develop?In a physiological response of living tissue to injury.
- 48What are the three main causative agents of an ACQUIRED inflammatory disorder?- Physical
- Chemical
- Infectious - 49What is an example of an acquired, inflammatory disorder with an infectious causative agent.Pneumonia - caused by a lung infection.
- 50List 4 types of inflammation (inflammatory disorders - acquired).Colitis - inflammation of the colon.
Gastritis - Inflammation of the stomach.
Sinusitis - Inflammation of paranasal sinuses.
- Tonsilitis - Inflammation of tonsils. - 51What is meant by immunity?Your body's defence mechanism against foreign/ infectious agents.
- 52List 3 different types of acquired disorders of immunity.1) Autoimmune diseases.
2) Hypersensitivity reactions
3) Immune deficiency syndromes - 53What is meant by SLE/ Systemic lupus erythematosus?An autoimmune diseases whereby your body's immune system attacks healthy tissue i.e. skin, joints, kidneys, brain etc.
- 54What are SLE and Rheumatoid arthritis both examples of?Acquired autoimmune diseases (disorders of immunity).
- 55What are hay fever, penicillin allergy, food allergies, and bronchial asthma all examples of?Acquired hypersensitivity reactions (disorders of immunity).
- 56Are immune deficiency syndromes congenital or acquired?There are both acquired and congenital immune deficiency syndromes.
- 57How would classify the disease HIV- AIDS?An acquired, immune deficiency syndrome.
- 58What is meant by an acquired haemodynamic disorder?Abnormal blood flow to tissues and organs.
- 59What is the most susceptible tissue to haemodynamic disorders?The brain.
- 60What is Ischaemia?Reduced/ stopped blood flow.
- 61What is thrombosis?Clotting of blood in a vessel of chamber of the heart.
- 62What is an embolism?A mass, such as an air bubble, detached blood clot or foreign body that travels in the blood stream and lodges in a blood vessel, thus serving to obstruct vessel.
- 63What is a vasospasum?Constriction of blood vessel.
- 64What 2 things can cause ISCHAEMIA? (an acquired haemodynamic disorder)- Embolism/ vasospasum
- Thrombosis - 65What is meant by a kidney infarction?When normal blood flow is interrupted (i.e. because of thrombosis), this as a result causes vasospasum (cramped blood flow) which in turn means there's hardly any blood flow being maintained to the kidney.
- 66What is a heart attack otherwise known as?Myocardial infarction.
- 67If ischaemia (reduced blood flow) is maintained to a particular organ/ tissue, what can this mean?Cell/ organ death = necrosis.
- 68What causes Metabolic disorders?Deficiency of an enzyme or hormone required by particular metabolic processes.
- 69Give an example of an acquired metabolic disorder. Explain.Diabetes mellitus Type II - when the receptors are not working for the insulin hormone, therefore entire glucose metabolism is not working correctly.
- 70Give an example of an inborn congenital error of metabolism. Explain.Phenylketonuria (hydroxylase deficiency).
If a child is born with a problem/ defect in the gene that encodes for the enzyme which metabolises phenylketones (hydroxylase).
If left untreated, can cause brain and nerve damage - very severe.
Normally tested at birth. - 71What is meant by an acquired degenerative disorder? Give an example.When there is a loss of the specialised structure and function of a tissue.
i.e. Osteoarthritis - bone and joint disease. Pressure on the joints over a long period of time in some people can cause destruction of the cartilage in the joint, thus loss of function. - 72What is meant by an acquired growth disorder?Abnormal growth including adaptation to changing circumstances which the patient is living in.
- 73What are 4 different types of Growth disorders?Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Atrophy
Neoplasia - 74Describe hypertrophy. Give 2 examples where somebody might have this condition.Increase in the size of cells.
Body builder (their muscle tissue), athletes (Left ventricular hypertrophy). - 75Describe LVH (left ventricular hypertrophy).- The enlargement of muscle tissue making up the wall of your heart's main pumping chamber (left ventricle).
- Normally the result of intense strenuous exercise over a long period, since there is more pressure on the heart to pump blood around the body to your muscles to deliver oxygen.
- In severe cases, contraction of the heart muscle can be made difficult due to its extreme thickening.
- The heart tissue has the same blood supply, just a lot more tissue, and this makes it very easy for the heart to acquire viral infections.
!!!DANGEROUS!!! - 76What is meant by hyperplasia? Give an example.Growth in tissue size by increase in number of cells.
Prostate (BPH) - An increase in number of cells within the prostate gland can cause obstruction of the urethra. When the patient reaches late 40s/ early 50s this can lead to severe problems. - 77What is meant by Atrophy? Give examples.Shrinkage of tissue (either as part of the body's normal operation or due to a disease - physiologically or pathologically respectively).
i.e. shrinkage of muscle when limbs are broken, OR atrophy of the kidney due to impaired blood flow - ischaemia. - 78What is meant by Neoplasia?Formation of new, abnormal tissue.
- 79What are the 2 types of Neoplasia?Benign and Malignant
- 80Give 3 examples of Benign Neoplasia (acquired abnormal growth disorder).Lipoma - fatty tissue
Fibroma - connective tissue
- Osteoma - new piece of bone growing on existing bone. - 81Give 4 examples of Malignant Neoplasia. (acquired abnormal growth disorders).1) Carcinoma (malignant neoplasia of epithelial tissue) - breast cancer, bowel cancer, lung cancer etc.
2) Lymphoma (malignant neoplasia of lymph nodes) - leukaemia - cancer of bone marrow and blood-forming organs.
3) Sarcoma (malignant neoplasia of connective/ non-epithelial tissue a.k.a mesenchymal tumour) - liposarcoma - tumour of fat cells.
4) Melanoma (malignant neoplasia of pigment producing cells of skin) - 82Give another term for Sarcoma (an acquired, malignant, neoplastic tumour)Mesenchymal tumour.
- 83Give 6 factors of BENIGN neoplastic abnormal growth disorders.- Slow-growing
- Capsulated
- Non-invasive
- Do not metastasize
- Well differentiated
- Suffix 'oma' - 84Give 6 factors noticeable in Malignant neoplastic growth disorders.- Fast growing
- Non- capsulated
- Invasive & infiltrate
- Metastasize
- Poorly differentiated
- Suffix 'carcinoma' or 'sarcoma' - 85What is meant when a benign neoplastic growth is 'capsulated'?Enclosed in a fibrous, connective capsule.
- 86What is meant when a benign neoplastic abnormal growth is 'well differentiated'?We can recognise the original tissue it derived from.
- 87What is a 'fibroma'?A benign neoplastic abnormal growth of the connective tissue.
- 88What is meant by 'fibrosarcoma' ?... 'liposarcoma'?A malignant neoplastic abnormal growth of the connective, epithelial tissue.
A malignant neoplastic abnormal growth of the non-epithelial fat tissue.