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Andrew Susilo Part 6-10 None Inglês 102 flashcards

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  1. 1Clincal model of attention (hierarchic): focused (respond discretely to stimuli) ->> sustained (continuous response during continuous activity) ->> selective (@ particular attention in face of distracting stimuli) ->> alternating (shift between tasks of different cognitive demands) ->> divided (>1 at a time)Alternative model of attention (interacting functional components): alerting (becoming + staying attentive, modulated by NE from locus ceruleus) xx orienting (similar to alternating, by ACh from basal forebrain) xx executive (especially during conflict between multiple cues, by DA from VTA)
  2. 2Huge majority of information processed by unconscious track Divided attention can be achieved with practice -> automatic processing - without intention, at cost of only small amount of cognitive resources; becomes more difficult when tasks are harder / tasks are more similarInattentional blindness = failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere (byproduct of focused attention); change blindness (type of inattentional blindness) = failing to notice changes in environment
    Neglect syndrome = damage to spatial capacity of divided attention
  3. 3Attentional capture = rapid shifting of attention caused by stimulus -> covert / overt orienting; visual scanning = attempt to identify by eye movement -> overt orienting Endogenous cues - require top-down knowledge to understand + intention to follow cue; exogenous - bottom-upFixation = focus on 1 object; sacciadic eye movement = rapid jerky movement from one fixation to another
    Stimulus salience - attention captured via physical properties (bottom-up) @ first fixations; further scanning influenced by scene schemas / task demands
  4. 4Selective priming - people can be selectively primed either via encountering frequently / expectation Spotlight model - describes movement of attention NOT of eyes; shift in attention -> eye movement Visual attention as solution to binding problem (features --> single object).
  5. 5Broadbent's early selection theory: selective filter -> perception @ detector; Treisman's attenuation theory - replaces filter with attenuator, analyse physical characteristics + language + meaning @ dictionary unit (common words have low threshold), attempts to account for cocktail party effectDichotic listening = different stimuli to left vs right ears
    Shadowing - repeating the words heard
    John & Heniz's multimode theory: location of attenuator / bottleneck can be varied by individual depending on task demand
  6. 6Deustch & Deutsch late selection model: incoming information processed to level of meaning -> select message to be further processed; early vs late selection depends on task + stimuli Lavie's load theory: low-load task leaves processing capacity available for task-irrelevant stimuliTreisman's feature integration theory: preattentive stage (analyse features) -> focused attention stage (combine features) -> perception
    Balint's syndrome = inability to focus attention on individual objects -> inability to integrate features
  7. 7Ventral attention network - control attention based on salience; dorsal attention network - control based on top-down process Effective connectivity = how easy activity can travel along particular pathway; changes by synchronisation depending on taskExecutive attention network = responsible for executive functions controlling attention / dealing with conflicting responses: cognitive control / inhibitory control / willpower
    Attentional warping = map of categories on brain changes to accommodate attended category
  8. 8Cognition: thinking / remembering / knowing / communicating Piaget's core idea: intellectual progression reflects unceasing struggle to make sense of experience via schemas while interacting with the world -> spurts of change in minds -> greater stability @ next cognitive plateauAssimilation = interpret new experiences into existing schemas; accommodation = adjust current schemas to incorporate new information
    Cognitive dissonance theory: reduce discomfort between conflicting cognitions -> change cognitions (denial / trivialise / modify / add)
  9. 9Family resemblance approach - allows for variation in definition within a category Prototype approach to categorisation = comparing to typical member of category; exemplar approach - many exemplars taking into account wide variation / family resemblance.
  10. 10Rosch's level of categories: superordinate (global) > basic > specific; categorisation level affected by expertise Cognitive economy = store shared principles just once @ higher-level node (based on semantic network approach) Spreading activation: @ any link connected to activated node -> summedCriticism of Collins & Quillian (hierarchical semantic network approach) model: couldn't account for typicality effect (faster association for more typical members); cognitive economy concept couldn't explain storing specific properties of concept @ node
  11. 11Connectionist model (parallel distributed processing): input units (stimulus represented as patterns of activity distributed across inputs) -> hidden units -> output (property) units Connection weight - determines how signals from one unit increase / decrease activity of next unitProperties of concepts in networks indicated by relational statements (represented by patterns of activity @ representation units and hidden units)
    Erroneous responses @ output units cause error signal to be sent back the network (back propagation)
  12. 12Sensory-functional hypothesis = ability to distinguish living things depends on memory for sensory attributes, ability to distinguish artifacts depends on depends on memory for functions Multiple-factor approach - search for other factors that determine how concepts are divided in a categorySemantic category approach: specific neural circuits @ brain for some specific categories
    Embodied approach = knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object \ not well suited to explain abstract concepts
  13. 13Sensorimotor stage (<2yo): babies know the world through sensory impressions + motor activity Object permanence = things continue to exist when not perceived Sensorimotor intelligence = coordinate sensory information + motor abilitiesBaby physics - infants look longer / explore unexpected / impossible scene that violates expectations
    Baby math - infants look longer @ wrong number of objects; even larger numbers / ratio
  14. 14Preoperational stage (2-6yo): learns to use symbols \ not yet comprehend mental operations of concrete logic Conservation = quantity remains the same even though shape changes Theory of mind = ideas of own + others' mental states; ability to take others' perspective gradually developsLimitations in thinking: egocentrism (see the world only in their own position) / animistic thinking (thinking that inanimate objects have thoughts and feelings) / centration (focus attention too narrowly, missing out on other important information) / irreversibility (inability to undo / reverse course)
  15. 15Concrete operational stage (6-11yo): gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events + empathise Formal operational stage (12yo): start to think logically about abstract concepts (imagined reality / symbols), including moral reasoning.
  16. 16Vygotsky's theory: child's mind grows through interaction with social environment; temporary scaffold by parents + teachers + other children Critiques of Piaget's theory: development as more continuous (vs Piaget's stages) -- Siegler's theory of overlapping developmental "waves"Zone of proximal development = what learner can achieve with little help; zone of achieved development = what the learner can currently achieve
  17. 17Adolescents may search for spirituality / deeper meaning of life by reasoning hypothetically / deducing consequences -> detect inconsistencies / spot hypocrisies in others' reasoning Crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence: discerning right from wrong + developing character.
  18. 18Kohlberg's levels of moral thinking: preconventional (<9yo, self-interest) -> conventional (early adolescence, social approval / social order) -> postconventional (adulthood, basic rights / self-defined ethical principles) Critiques: postconventional stage is culturally limitedPreconventional: egocentric (avoid punishment) -> reciprocity (mutual benefits); conventional: social approval -> social order; postconventional: social contract (welfare of society) -> ethical principle (justice etc)
  19. 19Haidt's intuitionist view: moral judgements rooted in quick gut feelings Moral reasoning // intuitive moral emotions under two different tracks (dual processing) Delaying gratification correlated with bigger prefrontal cortex + willpower + motivation + cultural viewsOrbito-frontal cortex weighs emotional component of a choice vs more rational evaluation of long-term goals -- puts brakes on impulses from amygdala
  20. 20Bandura's theory of moral conduct: internal beliefs x feelings x social situations -> action Internal standards useful only when activated (vs disengagement - acting outside of moral standards without feeling guilty); prior commitment promotes moral behaviourProcesses that lead to moral disengagement: cognitive restructuring (moral justification / sanitising language) / diffusion of responsibility / distorting consequences (minimising harmful impacts / reducing awareness) / dehumanisation
  21. 21Prototype = mental image / best example of category -- quick and easy method of categorisation Algorithm = methodical procedure that guarantees problem solving \ laborious; heuristic = simple thinking strategy to solve problems efficiently \ more error-prone, no conscious awarenessInsight = sudden realisation of problem solution after reorganisation of mental representation of stimulus; contrasts with strategy-based solution
    Frontal lobes involved in focusing attention -> temporal activity on flash of insight
  22. 22Intuition = effortless automatic feeling / thought (vs conscious reasoning); matter of yes vs no \ error-prone Representativeness heuristic = generalising likelihood of events based on match with prototype; availability heuristic = estimating likelihood based on mental availabilityAvailability heuristic may distort judgement of risks (eg foreign terrorists vs armed toddlers)
    Factors that trigger fear of unlikely events: ancestral history (eg spiders) / things we cannot control (eg flying) / immediate events (eg takeoff / landing) / availability heuristic
  23. 23Gestalt approach to problem solving: represent a problem in mind -> reorganise / restructure representation Newell & Simon's information procesing approach: specify initial state vs goal state -> operators (actions that take the problem from one state to another)Intermediate state = conditions after each step is made towards solving a problem, created by subgoals
    Problem space: initial state + intermediate states + goal state
    Means-end analysis = reduce difference between initial vs goal states by creating subgoals
  24. 24Analogical problem solving = solution to similar (source) problem guides solution to new (target) problem: noticing analogous relationship (crucial step) -> mapping corresponding parts -> applying to generate parallel solution Analogical transfer = transfer of source problem to target problemAnalogical encoding = compares two problems + determine similarity -- training procedure to help notice similarities between source problem vs target problem -> pay attention to problem features
  25. 25Obstacles to problem solving: confirmation bias (ignore / distort contradictory evidence) / fixation (inability to see problem from new perspective) / mental set (tendency to approach a problem in a way successful in the past, prime example of fixation)Errors of judgement: confirmation bias / hindsight bias / anchoring bias / representativeness bias / availability bias / tyranny of choice / conjunction fallacy (thinking that probability of co-occuring events are more likely than single event, can result from representativeness bias)
  26. 26Overconfidence = confidence > correctness; overestimate accuracy of beliefs / judgements Hofstadter's law: it always takes longer than you expect Prompt and clear feedback helps estimate accuracy of judgement.
  27. 27Belief perseverance = clinging to beliefs in face of contrary evidence Motivated reasoning = using conclusions to assess evidence Mixed information presented to both sides can increase disagreement between both sides.
  28. 28Framing = the way an issue is presented / worded -> significantly affect decisions and judgements; pragmatic inference = reading a sentence leads one to expect something implied Nudge = framing of choices without coercion or altered incentives -> encourage people to make choices.
  29. 29Creativity = ability to produce novel and valuable ideas; springs from defocused attention, needs time for incubation Divergent thinking = expanding number of possible problem solutions in creative thinking (vs convergent thinking: narrowing available problem solutions to single correct answer)Components to creativity: expertise (well-developed knowledge) / imaginative thinking skills (see things in novel ways + recognise patterns + make connections) / venturesome personality (seek new experiences) / intrinsic motivation / creative environment
  30. 30Intelligence = ability to learn from experience + solve problems + use knowledge to adapt to new situations Spearman's general intelligence (crystallised + fluid): 1 at heart of all intelligences, measured by every task on intelligence test; factor analysis identifies clusters of distinct but related itemsGardner's multiple intelligences: spatial / logical / natural / kinesthetic / linguistic / music / interpersonal / intrapersonal / existential
    Sternberg's triarchic intelligences: analytical (single-answer problem solving) / creative / practical (everyday tasks poorly defined, multiple solutions)
  31. 31Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory: general intellectual ability factor + more specific abilities (eg memory capacity, processing speed) General intelligence predicts performance on various complex tasks and in various jobsOther theories: Thurnstone's primary mental abilities theory (fluency / comprehension / spatial reasoning / perceptual speed / numerical / inductive reasoning / memory) // Guilford's convergent intelligence (IQ test related intelligence) // Galton's idea of genetically-determined genius
  32. 32Thorndike's idea of social intelligence = understanding social situations + managing self successfully Emotional intelligence: perceiving + understanding (predicting emotions and how they may change / blend) + managing + using (enable adaptive / creative thinking)Critiques of emotional intelligence theory: intelligence concept stretched too far
    Reference to Gardner's interpersonal + intrapersonal intelligences - emotional sensitivity / creativity / motivation as important but different
  33. 33Cattell's crystallised vs fluid intelligence: accumulated knowledge + skills vs fast + abstract reasoning on novel problems, increase with age vs peak @ ~20yo (drastic decrease after 75yo) Social reasoning skills may increase in older adults; decisions less distorted by emotionsCognitive declines with age: recall / episodic memory / processing speed / divided attention / prospective memory; stable cognitive aspects: implicit memory / recognition memory; cognitive improvements: semantic memory (\ later declines) / crystallised intelligence / emotional reasoning
  34. 34Intelligence test = assess mental attitudes + compares with those of others using numerical scores Achievement test - assess what someone has learned; aptitude test - predict future performance via capacity to learnBinet (predicting school achievement): measures mental age (level of performance typically associated with a child of a certain age) -> Terman revises Binet's test -> Stern developed IQ test for innate intelligence
    Wechsler developed WAIS / WISC -- yields overall score + separate score
  35. 35Requirements of a good psychological test: standardised (define testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with pretested group) / reliable / valid (especially predictive validity) Major US aptitude tests are not biasedScientific bias in tests - lack of validity (predicts future behaviour of only some groups of test-takers but not all)
    Some unfairness may be because of developed abilities that are affected by culture / education / experiences
    Stereotype threats = self-confirming concern of evaluation by stereotype
  36. 36Intellectual disability = intelligence score <3% / <70 + difficulty adapting to demands of life (conceptual / social / practical).
  37. 37Parallel processing = many aspects of stimulus at once Connectionism = memories as products of interconnected neural networks Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage modal model: fleeting sensory memory -> encode for rehearsal into STM (activated memory) -> encode for storage into LTMModifications to model: automatic processing from sensory memory straight into LTM (vs effortful processing via working memory); a lot of active rehearsal / maintenance @ STM (now known as working memory - addition of conscious active processing)
  38. 38Atkinson-Shiffrin control process (dynamic, associated with structural features that can be controlled): rehearsal (maintenance @ STM) / strategies to make stimulus more memorable / strategies for focused attention (from sensory memory -> STM).
  39. 39Types of information automatically processed: space / time / frequency Two-track information processing: one automatic track for routine details + one can focus on effortful processing Effortful tasks with practice can become automaticIconic memory = fleeting visual sensory memory lasting <0.1s (with persistence of vision); echoic memory = fleeting auditory sensory memory that can be recalled in 3-4s even if attention is elsewhere
  40. 40Miller's theory: STM can store 7 +/-2 pieces of information; opertion span @ 7 digits, 6 letters, 5 words Working memory as bottleneck of entire memory system (smaller capacity than sensory memory \ lasts 20-30s) Young adults have greater working memory capacityEffortful processing strategies: chunking (organising into familiar manageable units, often automatic) / mnemonics (memory aids especially with vivid imagery + organisational devices) / hierarchies (few broad concepts divided into narrower concepts) / method of loci (visual representation for each item)
  41. 41Baddeley & Hitch components of working memory (functions separately): phonological loop (few seconds @ phonological store -> rehearsal @ articulatory rehearsal process) // central executive // visuospatial sketchpad; + episodic buffer (@ parietal lobe, connects all with LTM)Impairment of central executive caused by damage to frontal lobe (PFC) -> can lead to perseveration (repeatedly performing same action / thought even if not achieving goal)
    Specialised language system supported by phonological similarity effect + word length effect + articulatory suppression
  42. 42Stokes dynamic model of working memory: activity state (information to be remembered causes a few neurons to briefly fire) -> synaptic state (firing stops \ synapses strengthened) -> pattern of firing activated when remembering.
  43. 43Synaptic consolidation - structural change @ synapse within hours -> systems consolidation - gradual reorganisation of neural circuits over months Hebb's postulate: repeated activity changes synaptic structure + greater transmitter release + increased firingStandard model of consolidation: hippocampus encodes new memories -> reactivation by forming direct connections with higher cortical areas -> stops communication; multiple-trace model - hippocampus remains in active communication \ response changes for stimuli that have lost episodic character
  44. 44Memory is distributed across a network of brain connections; brain regions input to prefrontal cortex for working memory processing @ central executive Hippocampus processes explicit memories (left for verbal information, right for visual information) -> store to neocortex -> consolidationCerebellum forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning; basal ganglia facilitates formation of procedural memories (may receive input from cortex \ does not return information back to cortex for conscious awareness of learning)
  45. 45Stress hormones make glucose energy available to fuel brain activity + provoke amygdala to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity @ memory-forming areas to focus memory (also disrupt memory for irrelevant events)Flashbulb memory = vivid memory of emotionally significant moment (more about how they heard about the event rather than the event itself); changes over time, often less accurate than everyday events
    Narrative rehearsal hypothesis = remember events by rehearsal
  46. 46Shallow processing = encoding @ basic level based on structure / appearance of words; deep processing = encode semantically (best with personally relevant information / context) Dual coding hypothesis = easier to remember words with associated imagesSemantic coding increases release from proactive interference (increase in performance because proactive interference does NOT apply to learning items of a new category)
    Semantic coding @ LTM -- recognition memory applies more for general meaning rather than exact wording
  47. 47Elaborative rehearsal (making connections to other information) > maintenance rehearsal Self-reference effects = enhanced memory if related to self Organisation for encoding: spontaneous grouping / organised presentation / meaningful frameworkTesting effect (retrieval practice effect) = enhanced memory after retrieving
    Generation effect = generating material vs passively receiving enhances memory
  48. 48Retention enhanced by overlearning (additional rehearsal), especially when practice is distributed over time (spacing effect) Illusions of learning: fluency (repetition causes reading to be easier) / familiarity effect (reading causes material to become familiar)Measures of memory retention = recall (retrieve information not currently in conscious awareness) / recognition (identifying items) / reproductive memory (storage of original stimulus + subsequent recall) / relearning (learning something more quickly at second time)
  49. 49Retrieval enhanced by presence of more retrieval cues; best cues come from associations @ times of encoding specific to that memory (encoding specificity principle) Transfer-appropriate processing = best performance when type of encoding task matches retrieval taskState-dependent memory = memories may be more easily recalled in the relevant state of mind / emotions (though not so well for drunk states)
    Mood-congruent memory = tendency to recall experiences congruent with current good / bad mood; may explain why moods persist
  50. 50Serial position effect = tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list Recency effect at brief recall (last items are still in working memory, obliterated after delay); primacy effect prominent after delay (more time to rehearse words @ beginning of sequence and transfer to LTM.
  51. 51Experience in episodic memory involves mental time travel to reconnect with past events; experience in semantic memory involves accessing familiar knowledge about the world Knowledge from semantic memory guides experience -> episodic memory (same for episodic to semantic)Autobiographical memory = memory from personal life experiences (include personal semantic + episodic memories)
    Familiarity - associated with semantic memory; recollection - associated with episodic memory
    Semanticisation of remote memories = loss of episodic details for old events
  52. 52Schacter & Addis constructive episodic simulation hypothesis: episodic memories extracted -> recombined to construct simulations of future events Mind wandering associated with stimulating the future; extremely prevalent, associated with activation of default mode network.
  53. 53Self-image hypothesis = memory enhanced for events that occur as self-image / life identity Reminiscence bump - enhanced memory for adolescence / young adulthood for people >40yo; related to cognitive hypothesis (stronger encoding @ periods of rapid change followed by stability)Cultural life hypothesis - distinguishes life story vs cultural life script (culturally expected events @ lifespan)
    Youth bias = tendency for most notable events to be perceived to occur @ young age
  54. 54Expert-induced amnesia = carrying out skilled acts \ could not remember how it was carried out Infantile amnesia = explicit memories made by infants mostly not retained after 4yo Procedural memory can be linked to semantic memoryPriming = presentation of priming stimulus unconsciously activates associations -> influences response to test stimulus; repetitive priming: priming stimulus == test stimulus
    Propaganda effect = give higher ratings to items that were presented more often; related to illusory truth effect
  55. 55Korsakoff's syndrome - caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency (common among severe alcoholics) -> shrinkage of neurons especially @ dorsomedial thalamus (inputs to prefrontal cortex) -> confabulation symptoms + inability to form new LTM \ procedural memory still intact; treatable, non-progressiveWernicke's encephalopathy: poor balance / abnormal eye movements / mild confusion / memory loss; early stage precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome
  56. 56Anterograde amnesia = inability to form new memories; retrograde amnesia = unable to retrieve past information Automatic processing can remain intact in amnesia Slower encoding with age can account for age-related memory declineForgetting curve - gradual fading of memory (transience / storage decay)
    Retrieval problems with age contribute to occasional memory failure
    Proactive interference - forward acting effect; retroactive interference - backward acting (less prominent for information @ hour before sleep)
  57. 57Reconsolidation = previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again -> may replace memory with false memory Misinformation effect = misremember when exposed to misleading information -> can influence later attitudes / behavioursSource amnesia / source misattribution = faulty memory for how / when / where information was taken from; can explain deja vu
    Familiarity (processed @ temporal lobe) normally happens before conscious remembering
  58. 58False memories can be socially contagious (we make memory mistakes on hearing others falsely remember events) Hypnotically refreshed memories easily incorporate errors; sometimes originating from hypnotist's leading questions (a suggestibility factor)Reconstructive memory theory = constructive process in building memory from similar experiences / cues ++ recollection of event itself
    Repetition increases perceived truthfulness, possibly due to fluency (ease with which a statement can be remembered) -> influences judgement
  59. 59Witness descriptions mostly inaccurate unless carried out under ideal conditions Post-identification feedback effect (unwarranted confidence) = increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identificationCognitive interview = let the witness talk with minimum interruption + help witness recreate situation present @ crime scene (including what they are feeling, where they are looking, how the scene might be different when looked from different perspectives etc)
  60. 60Biases that distort memory: expectancy bias (unconscious tendency to remember events as being congruent with expectations) / self-consistency bias (believing they are more consistent than they actually are).
  61. 61Natural language = language spoken on a daily basis; acquired automatically by children Generativity = variety of unique expressions from small number of basic linguistic components + rules Lexicon = set of words a person knowsComponents of language: phonology (sound patterns and rules) + semantics + syntax (how words are combined into sentences) + grammar (other rules beyond syntax eg relations between elements inside words etc) + pragmatics (intended meaning within particular context)
  62. 62Universal constraints - consistent rule patterns across all languages resulting in specific language features shared by all languages; allows a child to narrow down meanings of sentences + understand rules Speech segmentation = perception of individual words without pausesInfants perceive larger amount of distinct speech sounds than adults -> stop perceiving non-meaningful phonemic differences after repeated exposure to native language -> categorical perception for meaningful differences between sounds
  63. 63Prelinguistic vocalisations @ first few months -> babbling @ 4mo (start of consonant-like sounds) -> combine phonemes to build up morphemes + master prosody patterns (eg pitch) -> holophrases (one-word utterances) @ 1yo -> multi-word @ 1.5yo -> telegraphic speech @ 2yo -> understand rulesJoint attention = ability to interact with another person about an object of common interest via shared point of focus; developed by age 1
    Overregularisation - mistake in generalising grammatical rules for irregular verbs; follows U-shaped pattern (\ small dip)
  64. 64Child-directed speech = enunciating words clearly + speak slowly + higher pitch + simpler and fewer words -- accentuate boundaries between individual words and between phrases Recasting = paraphrase child's utterance.
  65. 65Skinner's behaviourist theory of language acquisition: adults gradually shape infants' linguistic response patterns eg by reinforcing correct use of sounds + grammatical rules Chomsky's criticism: adults rarely feedback on grammar \ devote most attention to meaningConnectionist approach - networks of associations for language; depends on brain's capacity for parallel processing + hidden layers of processing beyond overt associations
    Statistical learning approach - learning based on probability of sounds co-occurring
  66. 66Bayesian learning model - children adjust strength of rules based on integrating evidence Nativist approach: humans endowed with specialised brain system for language @ LAD (vs empiricist systems - only for earliest parts of learning process)LAD must be specialised for learning abstract grammatical patterns shared across all languages, while remaining flexible to learn a particular language
    Poverty of the stimulus argument = children can't learn language just by listening to others talk
  67. 67Semantic development = emerging understanding of word meanings and relationships Fast mapping: extraordinary speed of children mapping words to correct concepts (lexical access) Riddle of reference = dilemma translating new words correctlyConstraints on word meanings: perceptual (eg shape bias - objects with certain shape <-> name of object) / conceptual (eg whole object bias - label whole rather than parts or relationships) / syntactic (eg syntactic bootstrapping) / pragmatic constraints (from speaker's intent, eg mutual exclusivity of labels)
  68. 68Overextension = applying words too broadly; underextension = applying words too narrowly (may not be noticeable) Types of features children use to represent word meanings may change along, also for the way they represent semantic featuresCharacteristic features = features most typically associated with members of a category; defining features = properties pertaining to what the word really means
    Children shift from relying on characteristic features into defining features
  69. 69Chomsky's principles and parameters approach for grammar acquisition: common set of principles governing internal structure across languages (linguistic universality), while large numbers of parameters become fixed according to language (eg branching direction).
  70. 70Lexical ambiguity = words with >1 meaning Lexical priming: word followed by another word with simliar meaning Tanenhaus's theory: people briefly access multiple meanings before effect of context takes overMeaning dominance = relative frequency of meanings of ambiguous words
    Biased dominance = one meaning occurs more often than the other; balance dominance = meanings are equally likely
    Context may influence accessibility of meaning
  71. 71Parsing = meaning created by grouping of words into phrases Garden path sentences = begin appearing to mean one thing but end up meaning something else; temporary ambiguity in organisationFraizer's garden path model of parsing: parsing governed by heuristics
    Constraint-based approach to parsing: information + syntax participates in processing for making predictions
    Object-relative construction harder to understand than subject-relative construction
  72. 72Given-new contract = sentences constructed by speaker should include given information (listener already knows) + new information (listener doesn't know) Common ground = knowledge + beliefs shared among conversational parties -> creates entrainmentSyntactic coordination = conversational parties end up coordinating grammatical constructions
    Syntactic priming = hearing a syntactic construction increases the chance of producing a similar construction
  73. 73Aphasia = language impairment caused by localised brain damage; syntactic abilities affected if damage occurs @ Broca's area (left inferior frontal gyrus) // semantic abilities if @ Wernicke's (posterior temporal lobe) Conduction (repetition) aphasia caused by damage to arcuate fasciculusWilliam's syndrome = congenital cognitive impairment \ language spared (although speaking little meaningful content)
    Specific Language Impairment - part of second pattern of double dissociation; may be specific to particular aspects of language performance
  74. 74Linguistic relativity = native language influences thoughts / perceptions; linguistic determinism = language determines thoughts Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: speakers of a language acquire a way of perceiving the world unique to the language, in line with empiricist traditionsEmergence of language may allow a child to bring together different domains of thoughts and in novel ways -- language considered as domain-general common ground
    Egocentrism @ child's development influence child's use of language to communicate
  75. 75Piaget's theory of language x cognition: children think in a certain way starting from preoperational -> developed language to describe those thoughts Vygotsky's theory: language /// thought --> converge through development via socialisation (especially with adults).
  76. 76Consciousness = subjective awareness of ourselves and environment, assembling information from many sources -> focuses attention + combines sensation with other processes + manipulate mental model Conscious information - serial processing; non-conscious - parallelFreud's levels of consciousness: larger presence of unconscious (reservoir of needs / desires / traumatic memories, could influence conscious processing) + LTM @ preconscious (readily accessible, can do parallel processing)
    James's stream of consciousness - waking consciousness as everchanging
  77. 77Humans have internal circadian rhythm Zeitberger = resets circadian rhythm (eg light, noise, temperature); prevents drift Phase delay = sleep and awaken later; phase advance = sleep and awaken earlier Repeated shifting of circadian rhythm activates stress responseLark people awaken early, reach productivity peak (including moral behaviour) early, become less alert in the day; owl people warm up slowly, reach productivity peak later
    People living in bright electrical light stay up later
  78. 78SCN (part of hypothalamus) activated by retino-hypothalamic path (from ganglion cells with melanopsin, most responsive to blue light) -> stimulate pineal gland -> release of melatonin -> increases sleepinessDrosophila biochemistry of circadian rhythm: concentration of PER and TIM @ SCN increases during sleep -> feedback inhibition @ transcription, + also light degrades TIM -> wakefulness with low concentrations of PER and TIM -> increase transcription
  79. 79Coma = low level of brain activity + minimal response to stimuli (vs sleep - just moderately decreased levels) Vegetative state - alternate between sleep and moderate arousal \ no awareness nor purposeful behaviour; minimally conscious state may have brief periods of purposeful actionsPolysomnograph: combination of EEG + EOG + EMG + eye-movement records
    Wakeful (beta) waves - low voltage, 12-30Hz, irregular, fast; wakeful relaxation - alpha (8-12Hz); N1 - theta (3-7Hz); N2 - K complex + sleep spindle (12-14Hz, >0.5s); deep sleep - delta (largest, 0.5-2Hz); REM - PGO (random, fast, with sawtooth)
  80. 80N1 phenomena: hypnagogic hallucinations / tetris effect (experiencing things done right before bed) / hypnic jerks (muscle twitching caused by feeling of falling) Declarative memory consolidation starts from N2, more @ N3, most @ REM (especially episodic memoreis)Sleep spindles result from oscillating interactions between thalamus and cortex cells -- related to consolidation; K complex result from inhibitions
    Heart rate / breathing rate / brain activity decrease @ deep sleep \ large-amplitude delta waves more common (may indicate neuron sychronisation)
  81. 81Reticular formation - extends from medulla into forebrain (arousal) // spinal cord (motor control @ medial tract) Pontomesencephalon @ reticular formation receive many sensory input / generate one of their own -> axons extend to forebrain -> slow-wave sleep / arousal \ inhibit behaviourGABA neurons @ pontomesencephalon inhibits behaviour + promote deep sleep; ACh / glutamate / DA neurons produce arousal @ hypothalamus / thalamus / basal forebrain (inhibited by adenosine), partly by regulating ions (eg K+) for constant arousal (maintained by stable concentration in wakefulness)
  82. 82Locus coeruleus @ pons usually inactive (especially during sleep) \ emits burses of impulses in response to meaningful events, especially those with emotional arousal -> release NE widely throughout cortex -> increases gain (enhance most active neurons, dampen inactive neurons) -> attention + memorySome pons / medulla cells inhibit spinal neurons controlling body's large muscles during REM -> sleep paralysis
    Waves first detected @ pons -> @ LGN of thalamus -> occipital lobe
    Some axons from ventral medulla release GABA -> excite by double negative -> promote REM
  83. 83Hypothalamus has intermingling neurons; some promote wakefulness // others promote sleep (usually NREM) Histamine pathway increases arousal + alertness; peptide neurotransmitter (orexin / hypocretin) pathway from lateral / posterior nuclei extend to basal forebrain -> stay awake.
  84. 84Thalamus hyperpolarised during sleep -- decreased readiness to respond + less information transmitted to cortex GABA-releasing neurons increase activity -> interfere with spread of information (inhibition may be only local)Somnabulism (sleepwalking) - awake @ motor cortex while asleep \ most of the brain is not alert to process information; commonly during deep sleep \ not accompanied by dreaming
    Lucid dreaming = aware of being asleep and dreaming; ~40Hz activity @ frontal and temporal lobes
  85. 85Sleep apnea = difficulty breathing while sleeping; may awaken from breathless periods \ not remember awakenings Nacrolepsy = frequent sleepiness in the day; related to orexin, can have REM-like intrusions eg occasional cataplexy (attack of muscle weakness) / sleep paralysis / hypnagogic hallucinationsPeriodic limb movement disorder = repeated involuntary movement of legs / arms during sleep (vs restless leg syndrome: urge to kick while awake)
    REM behaviour disorder = move vigorously during REM; related to GABA
    Night terrors usually occur in children during NREM
  86. 86Functions of sleep: energy conservation / maintenance of body cells / enhance memory (synaptic pruning + formation of new dendritic branches) / growth (hGH released @ deep sleep) Memory consolidation occurs @ REM Eyeball movement during REM could be to increase oxygen supply to corneaActivation synthesis hypothesis: brain's effort to make sense of sparse distorted information (need constant stimulation for growth); PGO waves activate some parts of the cortex not others
    Neurocognitive hypothesis: thinking takes place under unusual conditions of sleep
  87. 87Primary visual and auditory cortices receive less input during sleep (-- no constraints / interference on generating images), suppression @ primary motor + prefrontal cortices \ high activity @ inferior parietal cortex (for visuospatial perception) + hypothalamus + limbic system.
  88. 88Effects of sleep deprivation: weight gain (due to increased cortisol) / increased ghrelin + decreased leptin / increased appetite / decreased metabolic rate / enhance brain responses to mere sight of food + decrease cortical responses that resists temptation / hypertension / reduced muscle strength.
  89. 89Cartwright's hypothesis on dreaming: dreams reflect life events important to the dreamer Helmholtz's creative dreaming theory: saturate in a problem of interest -> let creative incubate by shifting attention -> allow time to experience illumination (sudden flash of insight)Freud's psychoanalytic theory of dreaming: guard sleep (disguising disruptive thoughts with symbols) + sources of wish fulfilment
    Manifest content = storyline of dream; latent content = symbolic meaning
    REM rebound = increase in REM sleep to make up for previous missing REM
  90. 90Daydreaming occurs during relaxation, because brain default network (concentrated @ temporal and frontal lobes) continuously pay attention to how our experiences are relevant -- maintains awareness of what's important.
  91. 91Hypnosis = state of awareness characterised by deep relaxation + heightened suggestibility + focused attention, block attention to certain inputs; hypnotisability = responsiveness to standardised suggestions (some with dramatic changes in perception / memory / motivation / self-control)Hilgard's perspective on hypnosis: dissociated state with hidden observer in parallel with normal consciousness
    Cognitive view: shift in top-down processing driven by expectations and mental imagery
    Social influence theory: do + report what's expected of them as actors
  92. 92Meditation techniques: concentrating on repetitive behaviour / assuming body positions / minimising external stimulation -> relaxation + change in brain waves and density + lower blood pressure + decrease in stress hormones (-> amygdala density decreased) + new insightsLight meditation - increased alpha waves; deep meditation - increased theta waves (only experts can reach this)
    Increased baseline activity @ prefrontal cortex + right hippocampus + right anterior insula (for attention control)
  93. 93Hallucinogens - change consciousness by blurring boundary between self and external world; mostly acting @ 5-HT receptors Common hallucinogens: cannabis (THC active ingredient, may block reuptake + inhibit further release) / mescaline / psilocybin / LSD / PCP (both synthetic)PCP has unpredictable long-term effects; some include dissociation / insensitivity to pain / convulsions
    THC effects last many hours: pleasant effects (sedation / pain relief / euphoria etc) // unpleasant effects (confusion / motor coordination impariments etc), mind-altering effects due to DA release
  94. 94MDMA (molly, ecstasy) - synthetic drug somewhere between stimulant and hallucinogen; increases DA // 5-HT -> euphoria // satiety \ may damage neurons that produce serotonin.
  95. 95Opiates - highly addictive, suppress physical sensation and response to sedation; related to endorphins (natural painkillers) Common opiates: morphine / codeine; opioids (synthetic): heroine / oxycodone / hydrocodone methadone ( slow effects).
  96. 96Depressants - inhibit activity @ CNS Common depressants: barbiturates (induce sleep \ interfere with REM sleep) / benzodiazepines (reduce anxiety without sedation) / alcohol (equal opportunity drug -- disinhibits excessive helpful tendencies + increases harmful tendencies) / opiatesStimulants - speed up CNS activity; may increase concentration \ reduce activity
    Common stimulants: cocaine (release DA / 5-HT / NE) / (meth)amphetamines (block DA reuptake) / caffeine / nicotine (AChR agonist)
    Severe consequences: hypertension / dehydration / hallucinations / delusions
  97. 97Anesthesia induces sleep-like components: sedation (greatly reduced arousal) + unconsciousness (lack of awareness and responsiveness) + temporary amnesia + immobility May be related to GABA pathway.
  98. 98Tolerance = reduced effectiveness with repeated use of drug Physical vs psychological dependence: related to neurotransmitter vs emotions Addiction = continued use in face of adverse effects (vs behavioural addiction), mediated by NAccWithdrawal stages: acute phase withdrawal @ +4-12h after cessation -> symptoms peak @ +2d -> improvement by +1w -> may have episodic periods (commonly 1w every 3mo, may trigger relapse) for <2yr -> more emotional / psychological symptoms
    Benzodiazepine may alleviate for alcohol
  99. 99Substance-induced disorders - another condition caused by substance; substance-use disorders - substance itself causes serious problems / severe impairments in functioning Indicators of substance-use disorder: tolerance / substance usage increase (due to tolerance) / withdrawalSeverity of substance use disorder scale: mild (2-3 indicators) < moderate (4-5) < sever (>6); indicators in terms of diminished control / diminished social functioning / hazardous use / drug action
  100. 100Repeated addictive substance use may desensitise NAcc to all types of rewards; response cues associated with drug may be sensitised (facilitated by Glu synapses @ NAcc) -> increased attention \ needs higher dose / frequency of drug usage -> abstinence can briefly resensitise NAcc before decliningMesolimbic DA pathway: DA neurons @ VTA of midbrain -> NAcc @ ventral striatum (via beta-2R, may also receive Gln input from others, feedback inhibit via GABA) // limbic system // PFC via median forebrain bundle
    Reward centers = brain areas giving pleasurable sensations on stimulation
  101. 101Routes of drug entry: oral (slowest, ~30min) / transdermal (very slow) / inhaled (fast, ~10s) / IV (very fast, within seconds) / IM (may be quick or slow, but fastest mechanism).
  102. 102Treatments for drug dependence: detoxification (useful for strong addictions) / reduce pain / substitute with longer-acting drug (for easing withdrawal, eg methadone for heroine / benzodiazepine for alcohol) / switch to lower levels (useful for reducing cravings)Psychological interventions for drug dependence: motivational interviewing (goal-directed from intrinsic motivation level) / CBT / group meetings (12-step program: acceptance of problem / surrender to power / active involvement, sometimes with parallel groups)

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None Part 6-10 FlashCards sobre 6B, criado por Andrew Susilo em 30-06-2021.
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Andrew Susilo
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