Mapa mental

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Nurul Lisa Inglês

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Chapter 1 : Principle of Renewable Energy
- Energy and sustainable development
  - Sustainable development : Defined as living, producing and consuming in a manner -Development
  - Development : improvement in quality of life
  - Reliable energy supply
    - lighting
    - heating
    - communication
    - transportation
  - Vital factors for improving or maintaining social benefit from energy
    - increased harnessing of renewable supplies
    - increased efficiency of supply and end-use
    - reduction in pollution
    - consideration of lifestyle.
  - Numerical Model
    - R = EN
    - R - is the total yearly energy requirement for a population of N people.
    - E - is the per capita energy-use averaged over one year, related closely to provision of food and manufactured goods.
- Fundamentals
  - Energy supplies
    - renewable energy
    - non - renewable energy
  - Ultimate primary sources of useful energy
    - the sun
    - the motion and gravitational potential of the Sun, Moon and Earth
    - geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive decay in the Earth.
    - human-induced nuclear reactions
    - chemical reactions from mineral sources.
  - Environmental energy
    - the flows of energy passing continuously as renewable energy through the Earth
  - Energy planning
    - complete energy system
    - system efficiency calculation
    - energy management
  - Primary supply to end - use
- Scientific principle of renewable energy
  - Energy current
  - Dynamic characteristics
  - complex system
  - dispersed versus centralised energy
  - Quality of supply
    - mechanical supplies
    - heat supplies
    - photon processes
  - situation dependence
  - Definition : renewable (green) and finite (brown) energy supplies indicate the fundamental differences between the two forms of supply.
- Technical implication
  - Prospecting the Environment
  - End-use Requirements and Efficiency
  - Matching Supply and Demand
  - Control option
    - a) spill the excess energy
    - c) operate load management control
    - b) incorporate storage
- Social implication
  - Dispersed living
  - Pollution and Environmental Impact
  - The future
Chapter 2 : Solar Energy Resources
- Solar radiaiton
  - Definition : Solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface at a maximum flux density of about 1.0kWm-2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5µm. This is called short Wave radiation
  - Solar spectrum
    - ultraviolet region ~ 5% of the irradiance
    - visible region ~ 43% of the irradiance
    - infrared region ~ 52% of the irradiance.
  - Components of radiation
    - Solar radiation incident on the atmosphere from the direction of the Sun is the solar extraterrestrial beam radiation.
    - Techniques to measure various components of solar radiation : (a) Diffuse blocked. (b) Beam blocked. (c) Total.
  - Atmospheric absorption and related processes
    - absorption, the conversion of radiant energy to heat and the subsequent re-emission as long wave radiation
    - scattering, the wavelength dependent change in direction, so that usually no extra absorption occurs and the radiation continues at the same frequency
    - reflection, which is independent of wavelength.
  - Measurements of solar radiation
- Solar water heating
  - Active system, solar collecting panels, the storage unit and the energy distribution system are installed with one or more working fluids. Energy is distributed by the circulation of working fluids using electrically-operated pumps and fans.
  - Passive system all the functions of collection, storage and distribution are carried out by the materials themselves. The term 'passive' refers to the solar-related architectural concept which describes the methods to utilise solar heat that is available to equipment by natural means.
  - The main part of a solar heating system is the collector, where solar radiation is absorbed and energy is transferred to the fluid.
    - (a) Open-container (trough) on ground; heat flows easily to ground.
    - (b) Open trough, off ground. Clear water is not a good absorber; loses heat by evaporation
    - (g) Double glazed flat plate; better insulated version of (f); can operate up to ~100C; iron-free glass less absorbing than window glass.
    - (f) Metal tube and plate collector, and flooded plate. Standard commercial collector; fluid moves through the collector, e.g. to a separate storage tank; flooded plate more efficient than tube and plate
    - (c) Black closed container (‘tank’); large heat loss, especially to wind; no overnight storage.
    - (e) Sheltered black tank; cheap, but materials degrade.
    - (d) Black tank, insulated underneath; heat losses confined to top surface, therefore only half those of (c)
    - (h) Selective surface. , radiative losses reduced
    - (i) Evacuated collector. No convection losses to the cover.
  - Improved solar water heaters
    - Shelter black container
    - Metal plate collectors with moving fluid
    - Efficiency of a flat plate collector
- Building and other solar thermal applications
  - Air heaters
    - warming people drying crops.
    - drying crops.
    - Types of design
      - Matrix air heater
      - Solar air heater
  - Energy-efficient buildings
  - Crop driers
  - Water desalination
  - Solar ponds
  - Solar thermal electric power systems
- Photovoltaics generation
  - Electricity can be produced from sunlight through a process called the PV effect, where “photo” refers to light and “voltaic” to voltage
  - Types of material structures commonly used to produce Photovoltaics
    - amorphous, with no order or periodicity within the compound
    - polycrystalline, with local order, visible grain boundaries, and bluish color
    - single (or mono) crystalline, which is typified by long-range order and periodicity and is almost black with no visible grain boundaries.
  - The P–N Junction
    - Majority carriers in a p-type material are holes and therefore its minority carriers are electrons.
    - Majority carriers in an n-type material are electrons and its minority carriers are holes.
  - PV Cell applications
    - Utility power generation
    - Space systems
    - Solar power product
Chapter 3 : Hydropower
- Definition : The term hydro-power is usually restricted to the generation of shaft power from falling water. The power is then used for direct mechanical purposes or, more frequently, for generating electricity. Other sources of water power are waves and tides.
  - Two types of turbin
    - reaction turbin
    - impulse turbin
- Principles
  - P0 = ρQgH
    - where g is the acceleration due to gravity, P0 is the energy change per second
  - purpose : of a hydro-power system is to convert this power to shaft power.
  - Measurement of head H
    - H a = H t - H f
    - H f allows for friction losses in the pipe and channels leading from the source to the turbine
  - Measurement of flow rate Q
- Impulse turbin
  - The potential energy of the water in the reservoir is changed into kinetic energy of one or more jets
  - Impulse turbin runner
  - The output power is proportional to the total jet cross-sectional area A = na.
- Hydroelectric system
  - modern hydro-power systems are used to drive electric generators
  - complete hydroelectric system include the water source, the pipe (penstock), flow control, the turbine, the electric generator, fine control of the generator and wiring for electricity distribution (reticulation).
  - micro hydroelectric system using a Pelton wheel
- Reaction turbin
  - the wheel, called the runner, must be adapted so that the fluid enters radially perpendicular to the turbine axis, but leaves parallel to this axis.
  - the performance of reaction turbines in general, and the propeller turbine in particular, is very sensitive to changes in flow rate
- Power regulation and control
  - any hydro installation feeding electricity into a utility transmission grid, it is important that the voltage and frequency of the output match that of the rest of the grid.
  - primary generation is always at a relatively low voltage, the AC voltage can easily be increased by transformers
- System efficiency
  - The hydraulic ram pump
    - layout of a pumping system using a hydraulic ram.
Chapter 4 : Wind Energy Resources
- Linear momentum and basic theory
  - Characteristics of the wind
    - Wind Speed Distribution: The Macrometeorological Range
    - Wind Speed Patterns
    - Micro-meteorological Range: Turbulence
    - Distribution of Wind Direction
    - Wind shear profile
    - Long-term Fluctuations
- Characteristic of the wind
- Power extraction by a turbine
- Electricity generation
- Turbine types and terms
  - different types of wind turbine depend on their constructional geometry, and the aerodynamics of the wind passing around the blades
  - blade section of a horizontal axis wind turbine blade
  - characteristics of a particular wind turbine
  - Horizontal-axis machines
  - Vertical-axis machines
  - Concentrators
- Mechanical power
  - Sea transport
  - Grain milling
  - wayer pumping
  - Heat production