Chapter 1: Parenting and attachment

Chapter 1: Parenting and attachment

1. Behaviourism: shaping behaviour

2. Social Learning Theory (SLT): Parents as models

3. Social Constructivism: scaffolding development

4. Psychodynamic theory: internalisation of aspects of relationships with parents

5. Animal Studies (Ethologists): Lorenz: imprinting (bonding in humans?)

   • Harlow: Macaque monkeys - Cling to wire mesh cone when frightened, preferred cloth one. Chose cloth cone over milk one.
     • Harlow concluded contact comfort was at least as important as food, did have later disturbed social behavior.

6. Bowlby: Psychoanalytic background but drew from other perspectives e.g. ethology.

   • Internal Working Model (IWM) - model of the self, model of the other (primary carer), model of relationship between them
     • Responsive carer = receiving care. Depressed mother = emotionally unavailable
     • Provides a template for new relationships in childhood and beyond
       • Long term stable relationship necessary for healthy attachment - more attachments, better IWM
         • Bowlby influenced by the Robertsons - separation anxiety - separations can show how secure attachments are (6 months)
   • Winnicott: Transitional objects (comfort blanket), represent move from attachment to mother.
     • Bowlby took account of Winnicott - 'good enough mother', children develop resilience if allowed

7. Ainsworth - Strange Situation Technique

   • 3 types: Type B - Secure (mother secure base, wary of strangers, upset when mum leaves, easily comforted on return). IWM - feels worthy of affection - availability of mum
     • Type C - insecure-resistant (mother not a secure base, rejects strangers, distressed at separation, seeks contact on reunion but rejects it). IWM - feels unworthy of affection - doesn't think upset can be helped by mum
       • Type A - insecure-avoidant (does not use mother as secure base, not distressed at situation, avoids interaction on reunion). IWM - doesn't think worthy of affection, thinks of difficult relationship with mum.
   • Main and Solomon - Type D: disorganised (apprehensive and confused), often history of abuse or genetic/parental pahtology
   • van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg: Type B (65%, Type C (15%), Type A (20%). Many variations within and between countries.

8. Influences on attachment

   • Mother's behaviour: Vondra et al. - SST used with mothers and 1 year old children while in same room doing different activities (high chair; free to roam; engaged in activity tasks together.
     • Mothers classified as: sensitive, controlling, unresponsive.
       • LInk between: sensitive mothers (Type B), controlling mothers (Type A), unresponsive mothers (Type C)
         • Experience of emotion: Goldberg et al.: Compared 3 groups (10 of each type). Findings of emotional experience and mothers response were consistent (support Ainsworths findings)
           • Mind-mindedness: Meins at al. - mothers of securely attached children made reference to childs mental state than those who were insecurely attached.
             • Further study: Meins at al. - found correlation between extent to which mothers referred to childs minds at 6 months and performance on Theory of Mind (ToM) at age 4.

9. Baumrind - Models of parenting styles

   • Authoritarian - obedience; Permissive - non-intrusive but available; Non-conformist - anti authority, more control than permissive; Authoritative - warm, encouraging independence, influenced through explanation.
     • Russell et al. - mothers identified as authoritative, fathers authoritrian/permissive. Both more likely to be authoritarian with boys.
       • Need to look at what effect gender has on parenting style and why mothers and fathers have different approaches
     • McKinnon-Lewis et al. - Transactional model. Children shape children and vice versa.
     • Stimulated research for intervention programmes
   • Inconclusive, culturally specific, doesn't say why parents adopt these styles.

10. Main et al. - good IWM and securely attached at 12months = more emotionally open at 6

    • Main and Goldwyn - Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)
      • Investigated links between infant attachment and adult attachment - adults ability to integrate memories of early relationships with parents into their IWM.
        • 3 categories: Dismissing = Type A; Autonomous = Type B; Preoccupied = Type C
          • Tested by longitudinal studies to reduce bias
          • Zimmerman - Bielefield study = SST at 12-18 months no a good predictor of AA at 16, life events such as death/illness and divorce more important.
            • Hamilton - found correspondence when family circumstances remained stable
        • Link between mothers AA and children's SST. More predictive for SST if secure rather than insecure. Fonagy and Nagel - AAI during pregnancy predicted SST type.
          • van Ijzendoorn - meta analysis of attachment research found a transmission gap (factors relating to transmission of attachment are still not clear

11. Adolescence - Kobak and Sceery = used peer ratings and self reports to investigate attachment in adolescence

    • Autonomous = Peer rating - resilient, low anxiety and hostility, Self report - little distress, high levels of social support
      • Dismissive = Peer rating - low resilience, high hostility, Self report - low levels of personal distress and family support
        • Preoccupied = Peer ratings - low resilience, highly anxious, Self report - high levels of distress and family support
          • Steinberg - autonomous adolescents = more likely to have good relationships with parents.
            • Adolescence a critical transitional period - shift from parents to same sex peers to opposite sex peers
              • Steinberg - early maturers reported more conflict with mothers. Baumrind believes this is facilitated by authoratative parenting

12. Socioeconomic and sociocultural factors important influence. Steinberg & Darling found authoratative parenting had positive effects for European and Hispanic Americans but authoratarian parenting was more advantageous for Asian Americans.

    • Little research comparing cultures.

13. CHAPTER LINK TOPICS - Methodological issues; Relationship with parents; Transactional model; Culture