Topic 3 Memory

Topic 3 Memory

1. 3 steps of proccessing

   • Encoding: processing of info into the memory system
     • storing: The retention of encoded material over time.
       • Retrieving: The process of getting information out of memory storage.

2. 1. sensory Memory

   • echoic
     • iconic
       • linked to visual stimuli
       • stores end of sentence while first part is being processed.
       • link to auditory
       • must be stored long enough for all sounds involved to be received.
     • stores info for 3-4 seconds
     • linked to auditory stimuli
   • unlimited capacity but only a very brief duration
     • shortetest memory store
     • takes stimuli and transfers to short term memory
   • Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-store Model (basic division of memory)
     • 2. Short term / working memory
       • if sensory information is recognised as important, it is coded and transferred to short-term memory, which has limited capacity
       • (5-9 pieces of information)
       • 12-30 secs
   • 3. Long Term Memory
     • unlimited capacity
     • unlimited duration
     • 2 types
       • implicit memory
         • Info remembered unconsciously and effortlessly (e.g how to use a spoon)
         • » Emotional memory: memories of feelings relating to an event/person.
         • » Procedural memory: memories of how to do something, including habits.
         • » Facial recognition: ability to recall and recognise faces (disability from damage to fusiform gyrus = prosopagnosia).
       • Explicit memory
         • Info you consciously work to remember (e.g birthdates of friends)
         • Declarative memory: Factual knowledge that you have.
         • » Semantic memory: facts, concepts, names and other general knowledge
         • » Episodic memory: Autobiographical

3. the working model of memory (Badderly and Hitch 1974) (short term memory)

   • Working Memory: cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing. It's important for reasoning, decision making and behaviour.
   • Baddeley & Hitch's (WMM) focuses only on short-term memory. According to them, there are 4 components of working memory:
     • Central Executive (manager) Stores very limited amount of information for a very limited time.
       • - Main role: control attention, coordinate slave systems (phonological loop/visual spatial)
       • - Most important part of WMM
       • switching attention from task to task, deciding what material is to be retrieved from or committed to long-term memory and for performing calculations and making linkages
       • puts together the sounds and vision of working memory and controls our attention, which enables us to perform mental manipulation of data.
     • - Visual Spatial Sketchpad (the inner eye) limited capacity, processes visual information. Also considers spatial arrangement of shapes. Through this we are able to manipulate images in your head.
     • - Phonological Loop auditory working memory, has limited capacity, stores what we hear (e.g speech, music, sound) It is made up of 2 parts
       • - Phonological Store (the inner ear): - Auditory information enters memory here but can only be stored for 2 seconds if not passed through the articulatory loop.
       • (the inner voice): - auditory information is rehearsed here silently in order to be remembered.
       • - The Episodic Buffer helps retrieve information from the LTM to associate with information in the working memory and to select and encode information into LTM. Limited capacity.

4. Level of Processing Model ( Craik and Lockheart 1972)

   • The prediction that the deeper information is processed, the longer it will last.
   • - Shallow processing (structural) = fragile memory trace
   • Deeper processing (semantic) = durable memory trace
   • shallow proccessimg
     • Structural Processing (appearance)- when we encode only the physical properties of something (e.g how letters look)
   • moderate proccessing
     • - phonemic processing- when we encode it's sound
   • Deep Processing
     • deep processing involves ELABORATION REHEARSAL rehearsal, which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g images, thinking, associations, etc.) of information.
       • Semantic Processing
         • Encode the MEANING of a word and RELATE it to SIMILAR words with similar MEANING
         • BETTER RACALL

5. Craik and Lockheart 1972

   • The prediction that the DEEPER INFORMATION IS PROCESSED, the LONGER IT WILL LAST
   • Shallow processing (STRUCTURAL) = fragile memory trace
   • Deeper processing (semantic) = durable memory trace
   • We can process information in 3 ways:
     • Moderate Processing
       • - phonemic processing- when we encode it's sound
     • shallow proccessing
       • Structural Processing (appearance)- when we encode only the PHYSICAL PROPERTIES properties of something (e.g how letters look)
       • stuctural
     • deep processing
       • Semantic Processing- Encode the MEANING of a WORD and relate it to SIMILAR words with similar MEANING
       • - deep processing involves ELABORATION REHEARSAL, which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g images, thinking, associations, etc.) of information.
       • = better recall
       • SEMANTIC

6. memory in limbic system

   • The Hippocampus:
     • Small brain organ within the medial temporal lobe
       • - Damage to the hippocampus leads to loss of memory & difficulty establishing new memories (e.g Alzheimer's: one of the first reasons affected, causes confusion & loss of memory)
     • forms explicit memory
       • cells of hippocampus reproduce to allow new memories to form
       • establishes background or context for each new memory (e.g location, situation)
     • Consolidates and retrieves long term declarative memories
       • establishes background or context for each new memory (e.g location, situation)
     • Mainly associated with memory (ESPECIALLY LTM) & plays an IMPORTANT part in SPATIAL NAVIGATION
       • - Damage to the hippocampus leads to loss of memory & difficulty establishing new memories (e.g Alzheimer's: one of the first reasons affected, causes confusion & loss of memory)
   • The Cerebellum:
     • Works with motor cortex (frontal lobe) to PEFORM MOTOR SKILLS
     • AID PROCEDURAL MEMPORY by integrating COGNITIVE AND MOTOR SKILLS ls (e.g tying a shoelace)
     • PROCEDERAL MEMORYIES aree Processed and stored into cerebellum & some parts of the frontal lobe
     • The cerebellum activates the relevant neural systems to retrieve a PROCEDURAL MEMORY enabling you to PERFORM MOTOR FUNCTION WIToHOUT CONSCIOUSLY thinking about it.
     • Although the hippocampus is more important involving explicit memories, you could still lose it and create implicit memories (motor learning, procedural memory and classical control) due to the cerebellum.
   • The Amygdala:
     • Forms implicit LTM including emotional memories such as recognising emotion in faces.
     • Procedural memory such as skill, learning and classical conditioning
   • the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.

7. RECALL RECOGNITION LEARING

8. information lost from memory through encoding failure, retrieval failure and interference effects?

   • encoding failure
     • STIMULI ARE CONFUSED when learning, therefore WRONG ASSOCIATIONS are made.
     • State dependant
       • cues that retrieve a memory from LTM Cues from the environment
     • context dependant
       • cues to retrieve LTM using cues from internal environment.
       • If you cant do this, something is blocking it.
   • Retrieval Failure:
     • STIMULI ARE NOT RECOGNISED due to a LACK OF CUES / EXTERNAL STIMULI (tip of tongue)
   • Interference effects
     • previously LEARNT STIMULI INTERFERS with NEW INFORMATION
     • - Proactive interference: previously learnt material prevents us from encoding/storing new info
     • - Retroactive interference: New info prohibits remembering previously learnt material

9. IMPROVING MEMORY

   • CHUNKING
     • CHUNKING RELEVANT / SIMILAR INFORMATION TOGETHER to make it easier to recall
       • Only occupies one location in the STM, freeing up other locations for more information to be stored.
       • Improves the amount of information you can remember.
       • - e.g: Phone numbers - More effective when they have meaning (e.g 365 days in a year)
   • Rehearsal:
     • Maintenance Rehearsal (reciting):
       • RECITING WORDS in order to remember them.
       • Prolongs period of time in which they can be stored in STM
       • - REPEATING INFORMATION often enough (1000+ times) can transfer info to LTM
     • Elaborative Rehearsal (linking):
       • THINKING about what the INFORMATION MEANS and how they relate to each other/pre-learned things
       • MEANINGFUL LINK between new info, and old info already in LTM -
       • Helps create cues to recall this info from LTM at a later time. - Personal relevance can also be used.
   • Mnemonics:
     • - systems that help us improve/strengthen memory by IMPROVING ABILITY TO ENCODE info into memory and retrieve it when needed - e.g Never Eat Soggy Weet-bix
   • Method of Loci: 'memory palace'
   • SQ4R: Involves 6 steps

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