Exam 2: A&P (Modules 4 & 5)

Exam 2: A&P (Modules 4 & 5)

1. Branch 1: Integumentary System (20 Qs)

   • 1. Skin Structure (Cutaneous Membrane)
     • Epidermis: Keratinized stratified squamous (Avascular)
       • Cells: Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Dendritic, Merkel
       • Layers (Deep to Superficial): Basale, Spinosum, Granulosum, (Lucida - thick skin), Corneum
     • Hypodermis (Subcutaneous): Not skin, Areolar/Adipose, Anchors skin
     • Dermis: Connective Tissue (Vascular)
       • Papillary Layer: Areolar CT, Dermal Papillae
       • Reticular Layer: Dense Irregular CT, Pacinian Corpuscles
   • 2. Functions
     • Protection, Sensation, Thermoregulation, Vitamin D synthesis, Excretion
   • 3. Skin Color (Pigmentation)
     • Primary: Melanin (Type/Amount)
       • Made by: Melanocytes (Stratum Basale)
       • Function: UV protection
       • Variations: Freckle (flat, more pigment) vs. Mole (cluster of cells), Albinism (no tyrosinase)
     • Minor Pigments: Carotene (Yellow-orange), Hemoglobin (Red-pink)
     • Diagnostic Terms:
       • Erythema (Red - blood flow)
       • Pallor (Pale - blood flow)
       • Cyanosis (Blue - O2)
   • 4. Accessory Structures
     • Hair: Shaft, Root, Arrector Pili (goosebumps)
     • Nails: Hard keratin
     • Glands
       • Sudoriferous (Sweat): Merocrine (Exocytosis)
         • Eccrine: Watery/salt (Thermoregulation)
         • Apocrine: Milky/proteins (Odor, puberty)
       • Sebaceous (Oil): Holocrine (Cell ruptures)
         • Sebum (lubricates, antibacterial)
   • 5. Pathology: Burns
     • 1st Degree: Epidermis (Red, pain)
     • 2nd Degree: Epidermis/Dermis (Blisters, pain)
     • 3rd Degree: Full thickness (Charred, painless initially)

2. Branch 2: Skeletal System (30 Qs)

   • Sub-Branch 2A: Bone Physiology (15 Qs)
     • 1. Intro/Bone Structure
       • Functions: Support, Protection, Movement, Mineral Storage, Hematopoiesis (RBM)
       • Gross Anatomy:
         • General: Periosteum, Endosteum, Compact (dense), Spongy (trabeculae)
         • Long Bone: Diaphysis (shaft), Epiphyses (ends), Medullary Cavity (marrow), Epiphyseal Plate/Line
       • Marrow: Red (blood cells) vs. Yellow (fat)
     • 2. Histology (Microscopic)
       • Cells:
         • Osteoblasts: Build bone
         • Osteocytes: Maintain bone (in lacunae)
         • Osteoclasts: Break bone (resorption)
       • Compact Bone (Osteon):
         • Central Canal, Lamellae, Lacunae, Canalic
     • 3. Ossification (Formation)
       • Intramembranous: Mesenchyme -> Bone (Flat skull bones)
       • Endochondral: Hyaline Cartilage -> Bone (Most other bones)
     • 4. Growth & Hormones
       • Length: Epiphyseal Plate (Proliferation -> Ossification)
       • Width: Appositional (Osteoblasts build surface, Osteoclasts widen cavity)
       • Hormones: GH (general), Testosterone/Estrogen (growth spurt + closure of plate)
       • Disorders: Gigantism (before closure) vs. Acromegaly (after closure)
     • 5. Remodeling & Repair
       • Purpose: Ca2+ homeostasis, repair
       • Calcium Feedback:
         • Low Ca2+ -> PTH -> Osteoclasts active -> Release Ca2+
         • High Ca2+ -> Calcitonin -> Osteoblasts active -> Deposit Ca2+
       • racture Healing: Hematoma -> Soft Callus -> Bony Callus -> Remodel
   • Sub-Branch 2B: Skeletal ID (9 Qs)
     • Axial Skeleton
       • Skull (Fig 7.2): Cranial (Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, Sphenoid, Ethmoid) + Facial (Mandible, Maxilla, Zygomatic, Nasal, etc.)
       • Fetal Skull (7.14a): Anterior, Posterior, Mastoid, Sphenoid fontanels
       • Vertebral Column: Cervical (7), Thoracic (12), Lumbar (5), Sacrum, Coccyx
         • Structures: Body, Vertebral Foramen, Spinous Process, Intervertebral Discs
       • Thoracic Cage: Sternum (Manubrium, Body, Xiphoid), Ribs (True 1-7, False 8-12)
     • Appendicular Skeleton
       • Pectoral Girdle/Upper Limb (7.26): Clavicle, Scapula, Humerus, Radius/Ulna, Carpals (8), Metacarpals (I-V), Phalanges (2 in thumb, 3 in others)
       • Pelvic Girdle/Lower Limb (7.34): Coxal bone (Ilium, Ischium, Pubis), Femur, Patella, Tibia/Fibula, Tarsals (7 - includes Calcaneus), Metatarsals (I-V), Phalanges
   • Sub-Branch 2C: Articulations (6 Qs)
     • 1. Classification
       • Functional: Synarthrosis (none), Amphiarthrosis (slight), Diarthrosis (free)
       • Structural: Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial
     • 2. Fibrous Joints
       • Suture: Immobile (Skull)
       • Gomphosis: Immobile (Tooth socket)
       • Syndesmosis: Slightly mobile (Tibia/Fibula)
     • 3. Cartilaginous Joints
       • Synchondrosis: Immobile (Hyaline - Epiphyseal plate)
       • Symphysis: Slightly mobile (Fibrocartilage - Pubic symphysis, Discs)
     • 4. Synovial Joints
       • Structure: Joint Cavity, Articular Cartilage, Capsule, Synovial Fluid
       • Stabilizers: Ligaments (bone to bone), Tendons (muscle to bone), Bursa
       • Motion: Uniaxial, Biaxial, Multiaxial
       • 6 Types:
         • Plane: Gliding (Carpals)
         • Hinge: Flex/Extend (Elbow, Knee)
         • Pivot: Rotation (Neck - Atlas/Axis)
         • Condyloid: Biaxial (Knuckles)
         • Saddle: Biaxial/Thumb (Carpometacarpal of thumb)
         • Ball & Socket: Multiaxial (Shoulder, Hip)