Atypical Development

Atypical Development

1. AUTISM

   • deficits
     • social-emotional
     • non verbal communication
     • developing, maintaining, understanding relationships
   • restrictive interest, repetitive behaviour
     • motor movements, use of objects; speech
     • inflexible adherence to routine
     • fixated interests
   • THEORY OF MIND
     • understanding thoughts & beliefs of others
     • beliefs different than others
     • listening; not interrupting
   • WEAK CENTRAL COHERENCE
     • focus on detail rather than whole pattern
     • may explain language problems
   • EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
     • planning, problem solving, self monitoring, working memory
     • autism - mental rigidity; switching attention; problems with planning; inhibitory control problems

2. ADHD

   • hyperactivity, impulsivity
     • restless during activities
     • excessive talking
     • act without thinking
   • inattention
     • failure to give close attention
     • careless mistakes
     • not listening when being directly spoken to
   • DEVELOPMENT
     • neurodevelopmental lag
     • hyperactive declines with age
     • 2 yrs behind typical dev. in social dev.
     • lower educational attainment; lower occupational status; antisocial personality; substance abuse
   • BRAIN MECHANISMS
     • cause of ADHD - frontal lobe dysfunction
     • involved in control, planning, problem solving, inhibition
       • reflects deficits in these areas
     • brain volume - up to 5% smaller in ADHD
       • prefrontal volumes
   • COGNITIVE STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
     • impairments; motor control, inhibition
     • perform better at divergent thinking tasks

3. MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT

   • transactional models
     • impact of micro & macro environment on dev
     • complexities of dev
   • macro system
     • laws; history; culture; social conditions; economic system
   • exosystem
     • extended fam; parents work environments; mass media; school board; neighborhoods
   • microsystem
     • family; classroom; peers; siblings
   • individual child

4. THE ASSESSMENT OF ASD

   • tests for assessment
     • high level of discrimination between ASD spectrum & non spectrum case
     • useful info for severity of symptoms
     • satisfactory test-retest reliability
   • making good tests
     • easy administration; clear indication of parameters - differing age groups; easy scoring procedures
   • ADOS - G
     • semi structured; observation - communication, interaction, play
       • 4 different modules
         • 1) pre verbal young children; single words
         • 2) children with phrase speech; not fluent
         • 3) children; fluent
         • 4) adolescents, adults; fluent
   • the 3DI
     • computer administrated questionnaire
     • parents; provide relevant dev info
     • limits; 2 hours to do, reliance on retrospective info
     • gives clear indications of early & current behaviour in children
   • ASSESSING SOCIAL ADAPTATION
     • the vineland adaptive behaviour scales
       • target population; birth to (low functioning) adulthood
       • semi structured interview; 20-90 mins
       • domains; maladaptive behaviour, motor skills, socialisation, daily living skills, communication
   • ASSESSING COGNITIVE & LANGUAGE SKILLS
     • The Raven's Progressive Matrices
       • correlates with performance IQ
       • fast to administer
       • indicates where child situated in relation to peers
     • the British Picture Vocab Scale
       • receptive language
       • score in yrs - mental age
   • autism; heterogeneous

5. DYSLEXIA/READING DISABILITY

   • importance of reading; access to knowledge
     • higher level cognitive processes
   • learning to read
     • 1 way to pronounce grapheme; 1 way to spell phoneme
     • DECODING
       • transforming graphemes (letter combinations representing phonemes) into phonemes (smallest sounds in words)
         • phonological reading
   • stage models
     • visual approach to reading
       • similar words can confuse
       • not helpful for spelling
         • needs full info
     • pictorial strategies
       • errors based on word shape
   • alphabetic stage
     • phonological strategies
     • reading words haven't seen before
     • using letter-sound correspondences to decipher print
   • PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS
     • ability to identify & manipulate sound structure of words
     • phonological processing skill - related to reading & spelling
     • units of different sizes
     • emerges around 4-5
     • onset; first phoneme (cluster), vowel then consonants
   • DYSLEXIA
     • poor phonological awareness
     • delayed reading
     • later problems with reading, comprehension, spelling
       • verbal learning, handwriting, sometimes arithmetic
     • phonological theory of dyslexia
       • impairments; cognitive representations of sounds
       • affects learning of grapheme to phoneme
     • magnocellular theory
       • dyslexia caused by impairment in visual system
         • visual system: magnocellular, parvocellular
       • dysfunction of magnocells
       • deficit in processing visual info: low luminescence, low spatial frequency, high temporal frequency
         • extended to account for auditory & motor as well as visual
     • temporal processing theory (Tallal, 1980)
       • reading & spelling difficulties: result of rapidly changing auditory stimuli
       • deficit in this; impair ability to discriminate phoneme contrasts
       • impairment in perception of speech rhythm
     • CEREBELLAR DYSFUNCTION
       • deficits in motor & timing skills
       • automaticity & balance
         • reading ability affected in terms of automaticity
     • EMOTIONAL LIFE
       • dyslexia: emotional difficulties
       • individual coping strategies
       • studies between reading & behaviour difficulties
       • restless/inattentive
     • older children
       • easier to remediate reading in younger age
       • gap: able & less able - widens over time
       • reading ability improves with age; problems with spelling, accuracy, word recognition speed, reading rate persists
       • Adolescents/young adults
         • rate of reading, spelling to identify poorer readers
         • approaching adolescence - children may read accurate, not automatic/fluent
         • lingering effects of phonological deficit
         • need extra time - decoding, applying context

6. PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING

   • standardised procedure: sampling behaviour, describing using scores or categories
   • predictive of behaviour/interest
   • spearmans g
     • performance: mental ability based on single general ability (g)
     • g: logical, mechanical, spatial, arithmetical
   • gardners theory of multiple intelligences
     • instead of test scores; research - child development, brain damaged adults, exceptional talent
       • 7 intelligences
         • linguistic; logical-mathematical; spatial; musical; bodily-kinesthetic; interpersonal; intrapersonal
         • need to foster all intelligences
   • Sternbergs triarchic theory
     • contextual subtheory - intelligence; skilful adaptation to specific environment
     • experiential subtheory - novel tasks, intelligence - readily applying relevant knowledge. familiar tasks - solving them
     • componential sub theory - intelligence acts consists of cognitive components
       • selecting & organising
   • BINET - intelligence testing
     • mental age - distinguish bright & dull
     • stanford-binet IQ test, scores - average 100
     • good predictors of success in school/workplace
   • EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
     • identify and understand own emotions
     • successful use emotions during social interaction
     • use emotional awareness - problem solving
     • deal with frustration
       • being in control
   • HEREDITARY & ENVIRONMENT ON IQ
     • heredity - patterns of intellectual development
     • environment - home environment (high scores ; well organised homes)
       • historical changes in IQ
   • GIFTED CHILDREN
     • scores on IQ test - at least 130
     • exceptional talent - nurtured
     • intelligence - convergent thinking (one correct answer)
     • creativity - divergent thinking: novel, unusual lines of thought
     • munichs model of giftedness
   • INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
     • below average intelligence
     • organic causes: anoxia, downs syndrome
     • inorganic: poor nutrition, lack of stimulation, poor access to educational materials

7. DEVELOPMENTAL COORDINATION DISORDER

   • clumsy motor behaviour
     • movement skill problems
     • consistantly slower, less accurate
   • developmental dyspraxia
     • underlying difficulties - motor planning
   • NHS definition: affecting physical coordination, performance less well in daily activities at age, move clumsily
   • DCD - heterogeneous
     • coordination - gross or fine motor skills, both
     • discrete finger movements, hand eye coordination
     • poor balance
     • dev. milestones reached later than peers
   • REASONS FOR CLASSIFICATION
     • increasing understanding
     • ease process of gaining support; help understand potential
     • DSM 5 diagnostic criteria
       • criterion A - motor coordination
         • performance: below expected levels (age); coordination problems - balance, clumsiness, late developmental milestones (sitting, walking etc); poor acquisition of motor skills (catching, throwing kicking, running etc)
       • criterion B - impact on academic performance, daily activities
         • identify which activities showing difficulties, schoolwork, self care, play & leisure tasks (motor skills)
         • assessing handwriting, impacts academic performance
     • criterion C - onset of symptoms in dev period
     • criterion D - not better explained by intellectual delay, visual impairment
       • motor skills not better explained by this; or from neurological disorder (cereal palsy etc)
       • where thought intellectual disabilities main obstacle for dev & learning, level of motor coodination of childs age should be below expected
   • DCD OVER DEVELOPMENT
     • difficulties continue into adolescence & adulthood
     • children with DCD - greater risk for social, emotional, academic & psychiatric difficulties
   • INTERVENTIONS
     • focus on functional everyday tasks
       • meaningful exercises
       • multiple short sessions
       • variety of practice situations (one hand & two hand)
       • encourage goal setting, problem solving etc
       • breaking tasks down; so child knows what they working towards
     • global strategy
       • goal-plan-do-check: provide support, check if carried out correctly & in plan worked well
     • motor learning process
       • think about it; incorporate (practice) feedback from own body & environment; skill becomes fluent

8. SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE

   • complex social coordination
     • imitation, communication, theory of mind, interactions, relationships, empathy, collective enterprises
       • social interaction/relationships - fundamental role in dev & treatment of physical & mental disease
   • cacioppo et al., 2006 - social behaviour; 4 broad categories
     • self perception; self regulation; interpersonal perceptions; group processes
       • SELF PERCEPTION
         • positive illusions of self; maintain mental health
         • schizophrenia; disturbances in self perceptions
         • depression; process info of self through negative filter
         • pre frontal cortex = activities encouraging reflections of the self
       • SELF REGULATION
         • control & regulation of behaviour/emotions
         • working memory, attention, drive, decision making, affect, motivation
         • delay gratification, control appetite, control impulses, persevere to achieve goals
           • failure to self regulate: drugs & alcohol abuse, domestic violence, binge eating etc
         • anterior cingulate cortext
           • implicated= OCD, ASD, schizophrenia, Tourettes
           • Wyland et al., 2003: when asked to suppress single thought - greater activation in ACC; contrasted with free thought condition
   • atypical dev in the social brain
     • ASD - deficits in social cognition
     • schizophrenia - disinterest in social contact; social anhedonia
     • depression - social isolation
     • williams syndrome - hypersociability; nonsocial anxiety
     • psychopathy - lack of empathy
   • ATTITUDES OF SOCIETY
     • stigma; negative affect on mental illness
     • people resist acknowledge of problem; avoid treatment; terminate treatment too early
     • Harris & Fiske (2006)
       • viewing images of homeless or drug addicts = social areas of brain not activated
       • amygdala & insula activated = associated with fear & disgust
     • interaction - Morgan et al., 2002
       • investigation why some users of cocaine not addicts
         • interaction between = environmental events, action of dopamine, reinforcing effect of cocaine
       • susceptibility to cocaine; mediated by social dominance rank

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