PRAGMATICS

PRAGMATICS

1. SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

   • Syntax
     • Study of the relationships between linguistics forms, how they are arraged in sequence, and which sequences are well formed.
   • Semactics
     • Study of the relationship between linguistic forms and entitires in the world, tht is how literally conect to things.
   • Pragmatics
     • Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener.
   • Language
     • To understand some of the material that we're going to pull out of the wastebasket , we really have to look at how it got there
       • Interest in
         • Formal systems of analysis. Abstract principles. The role of linguists an philosophers

2. DEIXIS AND DISTANCE

   • Deixis is an important field studied in semantic and linguistic pragmatics deixis refers to the phenomenon where to understand the meaning of certain the words and phrases in an explanation require contextual information
     • Deictic elements are often used and in order to fully understand the meaning of deictic elements.
   • Type of deixis
     • Person deixis
       • Person deixis is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as
         • • the speaker • the addressee, and • referents which are neither speaker nor addressee.
       • Person deixis is commonly expressed by the following kinds of constituents
         • • Possessive affixes of nouns • Agreement affixes of verbs
     • Spatial deixis
       • Local/spatial deixis is expressed in place adverbials (e.g. left, behind, etc.) which indicate the speaker´s location during the speech event.
         • Psychological Distance
           • when speakers mark how close or distant something is perceived to be.
         • Deitic projection
           • when speakers acts as if they are somew here else.
     • Temporal deixis
       • Temporary deixis places the speaker's perspective on the past, present, and future. This type of deixis is grammaticalized in time adverbs (now, tomorrow, then) and in verbal time.
   • Deixis and grammar
     • Deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, and tense.

3. REFERENCE AND INFERENCE

   • Reference
     • As an act in which a speaker ,or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener ,reader to identify something These
   • Inference
     • These is more important for successful reference to occur Because there is not direct relationship between entities and words the listener task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends
   • Not all referring expressions have identifiable real world referents. For example: Indefinite noun phrases can be used to describe a physically present referent as in
     • physically present referent as
     • referent that is assumed to exist
     • entities that to our knowledge do not exist
     • The role of co text
       • The co text clearly limits the range of possible interpretations
         • Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its meaning

4. PRESUPPOSITION AND ENTAILMENT

   • Presupposition
     • • It is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance
       • For example
         • • Mary’s brother bought three horses ◦ A person called Mary exists ◦ Mary has a brother
     • Types of presupposition
       • Existential presupposition
         • This presupposition is associated with existence it is concluded to be existing in possessive constructions ´your car ´ ´you have a car ´ in addition, it is exemplified generally in any definite noun phrase
           • Example
             • The King of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door, the Counting Crows
       • Factive presupposition
         • The presupposed information following a verb like ´know ´can be treated as a fact ´realize ´ ´be aware ´
           • Example
             • She didn ´t realize he was ill ..(He was ill)
       • Lexical presupposition
         • The use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non asserted) meaning is understood
           • Example
             • • He stopped smoking ..(He used to smoke)
       • Structural presupposition
         • They are associated with the use of certain words and phrases We might say that speakers can use such structure to treat information as presupposed assumed to be true) And being accepted by the listener
           • Example
             • The Wh question is interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh form when where is already known to be the case  When did he leave He left
       • Counterfactual presupposition
         • What is presupposed is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true or contrary to facts The information in the if clause is not true at the time of the utterance ..(
           • Example
             • If you were my friend you would have helped me You are not my friend
       • Non-factive
         • It ´ s the one that is assumed not to be true
           • Example
             • I dreamed that i was rich...I was not rich
   • Order Entailment
     • Example:
       • The sentence (A) The president was assassinated . entails (B) The president is dead
   • Entailment is a concept that refers to a specific kind of relationship between two sentences More
   • Rule:
     • The basic rule for entailment has been effectively captured
       • For example:
         • If two sentences X and Y are related by entailment then this means that if X is true, then Y must also be true or conversely that if Y is false, then X must also be false

5. COOPERATION AND IMPLICATURE

   • Is the assumption that participants in a conversation normally attempt to be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear
     • In academic speech, hedging is most appropriately described as either ( a lack of competence commitment to the truth value of an accompanying proposition, or ( a desire not to express that commitment categorically
   • Key Takeaways: Grice's Conversational Maxims 01 02 03 04 Quantity Quality Manner Relevance
   • Conversational implicature
     • In pragmatics, conversational implicature is an indirect or implicit speech act what is meant by a speaker's utterance that is not part of what is explicitly said The
   • Generalized conversational implicatures
     • A re inferences that refer to the non explicit meaning that occurs by default in any type of context.
   • Properties of conversational implicatures.
     • CANCELLABILITY
       • Conversational implicatures can be canceled when they run counter to a) semantic entailment, b) background assumptions, and c) context
     • Nondetachability
       • Conversational implicatures come from the semantic content of utterances. This means that if synonyms are used they don’t change the implicature.
     • Calculability
       • Implicatures can be calculated from the cooperative principle and it’s associated maxims.
     • Non conventionality
       • Implicatures are not a part of what is said, but rather part of the speaker or utterance.
     • Reinforceability
       • Implicatures can be reinforced by being made explicit, without there being too much redundancy
     • Universality
       • Conversational implicatures are usually universal across all languages. Using the quantifier some rather than all has the implicature that the speaker means not all.

6. DIRECT AND INDIRECT

   • Direct speech act
     • An utterance is seen as adirect speech actwhen there is adirectrelationship between the structure and the communicative function of the utterance.
       • Examples
         • •A declarative is used to make a statement: “You weara seatbelt.”
         • •An interrogative is used to ask a question: “Do you wear a seat belt?”
   • Indirect speech acts
     • Are commonly used to reject proposals and to make requests.
       • Examples
         • •“It’s cold outside” can be interpreted as a request to close the door ( indirect speech act), or I hereby tell you about the weather ( direct speech act)
         • •A declarative is used to make a request: “You’re standing in front of theTV.”