Personality Approaches

Personality Approaches

1. Freud

   • Freud's stages of psychosexual Development
     • Oral 0-1
       • Anal 1-3
         • Phallic 3-6
           • Latency 6-12
             • Genital +12
   • anxietyresult from the ego’s inability tomediate the conflict between the idand superego.
     • DEFENS MECHANISMS​
       • Denial. Refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant
         • Displacement Transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target
           • Projection: Attributing unnaceptable desires to others
             • Rationalization: Justifying behaviors by substituing acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons
               • Reaction Formation: Reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs
                 • Regression: Returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development
                   • Repression: Surpressing painful memories and thoughts
                     • Sublimation: Redirecting unnaceptable desires through socially acceptable channels

2. Neo-Freudians

   • Adler
     • Proposed inferiority Complex
       • refers to a person feeling that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of the society.differently than Freud, he believed that the feeling of inferiority in childhood is what drives people to attempt to gain superiority.
         • Alder identified three fundamental social tasks.
           • -Occupational task that refers to careers
             • -Societal task that concerns friends
               • -Love task that refers to finding a partner to havea long relationship.
   • Erikson
     • Erikson’s theory involves a total of eight stages (infancy, toddler, early school age, middle school age, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, old age) with each stage centering on a particular crisis of development.
       • A positive resolution of each crisis strengthens the growing ego; a negative resolution weakens it. Moreover, a positive resolution of a crisis at one stage increases the chances of that positive resolution of crisis at later stages.
   • Jung
     • Analytical Psychology The focus is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s personality. Its continuous learning process of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.
       • Collective Unconscious Is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us. Archetypes: the ancestral memories, are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art and dreams.
         • Introversion and extroversion If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved. If you are an extrovert than, you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented.
           • • Persona It is something that we consciously create, like a mask we put on, and this mask is created by our conscious experiences and our collective unconscious.
   • Horney
     • She believed that every individual has the potentialof self realization and thatpsychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy selfrather than exploringchildhood disfunction patterns.
       • Her theories were focused on the role of unconsciousanxiety. She suggested thatnormal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety fromneeds not being met, such aschildhood experiences of loneliness and isolation.
         • Coping Styles
           • ●Moving Toward PeopleAffiliation and Dependence.
             • ●Moving Against PeopleAggression and Manipulation.
               • ●Moving Away From PeopleDetachment and Isolation.

3. Behavioral Perspective

   • Skinner
     • The Behavioral Perspective
       • ●They do not see personality traits as inborn. Instead,they view personality assignificantly shaped by the reinforcements and theconsequences outside of theorganism. Strict behaviorist, believed that the environmentwas solely responsible forall behavior.
         • ●Skinner proposed that we demonstrate consistent behaviorpatterns because we havedeveloped certain response tendencies (Skinner, 1953).
           • ●We learn to behave in particular ways. We increasethe behaviors that lead to positiveconsequences and we decrease the behaviors that leadto negative consequences.
             • ●He argued that personality develops over our entirelife, not only in the first fewyears. Our responses can change as we come acrossnew situations.
               • ●Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as amind, but that it is simply moreproductive to study observable behavior rather thaninternal mental events.
                 • ●He believed that the best way to understand behavioris to look at the causes of anaction and its consequences. He called this approachoperant conditioning.
     • Skinner box
       • A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioningchamber, is a device used toobjectively record an animal's behavior in a compressedtime frame. An animal can berewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors,such as lever pressing (for rats) orkey pecking (for pigeons).
     • Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant,that can follow behavior.
       • •Neutral operants: responses from the environmentthat neither increase nor decrease theprobability of a behavior being repeated.
         • •Reinforcers: Responses from the environment thatincrease the probability of a behaviorbeing repeated. Reinforcers can be either positiveor negative.
           • •Punishers: Responses from the environment that decreasethe likelihood of a behaviorbeing repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
     • Positive Reinforcement Response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.
       • Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response. It is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person.
         • Positive punishment works by presenting an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. The following are some examples of positive punishment
           • Negative punishment happens when a certain reinforcing stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future.
   • Bondura (Social-cognitive)
     • The Social Cognitive Perspective Albert Bandura agreed with Skinner that personality develops through learning. He disagreed, however , with Skinner's strict behaviorist approach to personality development, because he felt that thinking and reasoning are important components of learning. He presented a social-cognitive theory of personality that emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual differences in personality
       • Reciprocal lDeterminism In contrast to Skinner's idea that the environment alone determines behavior , Bandura determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior , and context ali interact, each actor influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously. Cognitive processes refer to ali characteristics previously learned, including beliefs,expectations,and personality characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished.
         • Self-Efficacy Bandura has studied a number of cognitive and personal factors that affect learning and personality development, and most have recently focused on the concept of self-efficacy. In Observational learning, self-efficacy is a cognitive factor that affects which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in performing those behaviors.

4. Humanistic approaches

   • Maslow and Carl Rogers
     • Both Rogers’s and Maslow’s theories focus on individualchoices and do not believe thatbiology is deterministic.
     • Humanism comes as a response to the disagreement onthe psychoanalysis andbehaviorism theories
     • Humanistic Theorist: Carl Rogers
       • ●Main ideas about personality are: self-concept, our thoughts and feelings about Ourselves.
         • ●Main question: Who am I? Depending on your answer is how you perceive yourself and the world.
           • ●He divided the “self” into two categories and when our thoughts about real and ideal self are similar we are experiencing congruence: 1.The ideal self: the person you would like to be 2.The real self: the person who you are
             • ●High congruence leads to a better sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life.
               • ●On the other side, we have incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.

5. Biological Approaches

   • Minnesota Study of twins and Temperament
     • Minnesota study of Twins: Conducted research with twins between 1979 and 1999. 350 pairs of twins. Identical twins, This might suggest that some personality traits can be inherited
       • Thomas and chess (1977) found that babies could be categorized into 1 of 3 temperaments: easy, difficult, slow Body type and temperament: your body type can be linked to your personality
     • Ectomorphs: are thin with small bone structure and very little fat on their bodies
       • Endomorph: have narrow shoulders and wide hips and carry extra fat on their round bodies
         • Mesomorphs: have large bone structure, well-defined muscles, broad shoulders, narrow waists, and attractive, strong bodies

6. Traits approaches

   • The Five Factor Model (OCEAN)
   • Cultural understanding of personality
     • CULTURAL UNDERSTANDINGS OF PERSONALITY Personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). The term culture refers to all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people's personalities. There is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let's take a look at some of the Big Five
       • PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These values influence personality, For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits.
         • APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the comparative approach, the indigenous approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011).

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