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Flashcards

Ethnicity and educational achievement: key studies and factors

Holly Reid2077 Inglês 79 flashcards

Flashcards do conjunto (79)

  1. 1Why/ how would Intellectual and linguistic skills of ethnic minorities affect achievement?A lack of Intellectual and linguistic skills is a Major cause of under-achievement. Many children from low-income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences. This leaves them poorly equipped for school because they have not been able to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills. Also the language used by black children in inadequate for educational success. Also those who don’t speak English at home may be held back educationally
  2. 2What does Bowker (1968) identify? (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)a lack of standard English (of some ethnic minority's) as a major barrier to progress in education and integration into wider society.
  3. 3What does Mirza (2000) note about achievement in education? (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Mirza (2000) notes that Indian pupils do very well despite often not having English as their home language
  4. 4How might family structure affect achievement? (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Failure to socialize children adequately is the result of dysfunctional family structure. Many black families are headed by a lone-mother; their children are deprived of adequate care because she has to struggle financially due to the absence of the male breadwinner. The absence of the father also leads to the absence of the positive role model.
  5. 5Charles Murray (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Charles Murray says that family structure would lead to the underachievement of some minorities.
  6. 6What does Pryce argue? (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Pryce: Asian pupils are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racism and gives them a greater sense of self-worth.
  7. 7What do Driver and Ballard argue Asian parents are better at? (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Driver and Ballard: they bring educational benefits as the parents have more positive attitudes towards education, higher aspirations and are therefore more supportive.
  8. 8Lupton: respectful ___________ towards _______ was expected from children, and had a knock-on effect in schools. (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)1. behaviour
    2. Adults
  9. 9Khan suggests Asian parents are ’______________' bound by tradition, and controlling. (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)‘stress ridden'
  10. 10Name three criticisms of Cultural deprivation in ethnicity theorists! (Ethnicity/Cultural deprivation)Driver: ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievement.
    Lawrence: black pupils under-achieve because of racism not self-esteem.
    Keddie: victim-blaming theory. They under-achieve because schools are ethnocentric and favour white culture.
  11. 11___% of ethnic minority households live in overcrowded conditions. (Ethnicity/Material deprivation)15%
  12. 12Pakistani and Bangladeshi women are more likely to be in ___________. (Ethnicity/Material deprivation)low-paid jobs.
  13. 13Unemployment is ______ times higher for African and Bangladeshi/Pakistani people. (Ethnicity/Material deprivation)three
  14. 14Gillborn and Mirza - (Ethnicity/Material deprivation)Gillborn and Mirza argue that social class factors don’t ignore the influence of ethnicity. When we compare pupils of the same social class but different ethnic origins, we still find differences in achievement.
  15. 15David Mason: ‘Discrimination is a ... (Ethnicity/Racism in wider soicety)...continuing and persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizen’s of ethnic minority origin’.
  16. 16Rex - (Ethnicity/Racism in wider soicety)-Rex: shows how racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and how this worsens the poverty faced by ethnic minorities. E.g. housing; minorities are more likely to be forced into substandard accommodation than whites.
  17. 17Noon - (Ethnicity/Racism in wider soicety)-Noon: two people with the same qualifications and experience applied for a job. However, the white person got the job, rather than the Indian. Thus shows that ethnic minorities are more likely to face unemployment and low pay.
  18. 18Interactionists (Ethnicity/Labelling and Teacher Racism)Interactionsists: They see that teachers picture an image of the ‘ideal pupil’. But they see that black and Asian far from the ideal pupil. This leads them to label black pupils as disruptive and aggressive, and Asian pupils as passive and a problem they can ignore.
  19. 19Gillborn and Youdell (Ethnicity/Labelling and Teacher Racism)Gillborn and Youdell: due to racialised expectations, teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behavior.
  20. 20Black pupils (Ethnicity/Labelling and Teacher Racism)Black pupils: Teachers misinterpreted their behaviour as threatening/challenge to authority. Pupils then responded negatively and further conflict resulted. This may be why many black pupils are excluded, and their stereotypes may cause them to be in lower sets (under-achievement).
  21. 21Asian pupils (Ethnicity/Labelling and Teacher Racism)Asian pupils: Teachers assumed that they would have a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussions or used simplistic childish language. They also felt isolated when teachers mispronounced their names or teachers expressed disapproval of their customs.
  22. 22Fuller (Ethnicity/Pupil Responses and Subcultures)Fuller: Study of a group of black girls in year 11. Found that the girls conformed as far as school work was concerned. They worked consistently, but gave the appearance of not doing so (positive attitude to academic success, but preferred to rely on their own efforts than teachers). Fuller sees that pupils may still succeed even when they refuse to conform, and negatively labelling doesn’t always lead to failure (no self-fulfilling prophecy).
  23. 23Mirza: (Ethnicity/Pupil Responses and Subcultures)Mirza: Study of ambitious girls who faced teacher racism. The study failed as their coping strategies restricted their opportunities and thus under-achieved. She found that racist teachers discouraged black pupils from being ambitious through the kind of career advice that was given to them. The colour blind: teachers who believe all pupils are equal but allow racism got unchallenged. Liberal chauvinists: teachers who believe black pupils are culturally deprived and had low expectations of them. Overt racists: teachers who believe blacks are inferior and discriminate against them.
  24. 24Sewells: Four ways in which boys respond to racist stereotyping: (Ethnicity/Pupil Responses and Subcultures)Rebels (rejected both the goals and rules of school, conforming to the stereotype of the ‘black macho lad’. Saw white boys as effeminate),
    Conformists (keen to succeed, accepted the school’s goals and avoided stereotypes from teachers or their peers),
    Innovators (pro-education but anti-school).
    Retreatists (disconnected from both school and black subcultures),
  25. 25Ethnocentric (Ethnicity/Ethnocentric)Ethnocentric: attitude/policy that gives more value to one culture and ignores the rest.
  26. 26The curriculum is very ethnocentric (favouring __1___ culture). E.g. in teaching languages; ____2____ languages are ignored (also other cultures in literature, art and music). (Ethnicity/Ethnocentric)1. White
    2. Non-european
  27. 27In history, ____1_ history is taught, but it is focused on __2___. This may produce lower self-esteem to black pupils as this image of black people as inferior undermines them and may lead to failure. (Ethnicity/Ethnocentric)1. black
    2. slavery
  28. 28Institutional racism: (Institutional racim/education)discrimination that is built into the way institutions operate.
  29. 29Gillborn (Institutional racim/education)Gillborn argues that schools are institutionally racist as teachers interpret policy in a way that disadvantages black pupils. For example, Schools tend to set schemes for the gifted and talented, and vocational schemes for the less academic e.g. black and Asians.
  30. 30Gillborn and Youdell (1999) (Institutional racim/education)Increased Marketisation of schools has led to the effect of an ‘A - C economy’. According to Gillborn and Youdell (1999) this creates a rationing of education whereby teachers are forced to focus on those in danger of not realizing their potential for an above C grade. Thus they neglect of the no-hopers and high acheivers.
  31. 31___who?__ shows that magazines in the 1970’s emphasized the importance of getting married. Whereas, nowadays, they contain images of assertive, independent women. Also soap operas now highlight the importance of self-esteem and personal choice for young women. (Girls and education - feminism)McRobbie
  32. 32SharpeSharpe- study involved conducting interviews with girls in the 1970’s and 1990’s. In the 1970’s the girls felt that education with unfeminine and if they were interested, it would make them unattractive. In the 1990’s, the girl’s ambitions had changed, and thought careers are more important as they can support themselves.
  33. 331970 equal pay act..1970 Equal Pay Act (illegal to pay women less for the same job as men), Sex Discrimination Act. Women’s employment has risen due to the service sector and flexible part-time work
  34. 34Equal opportunities policies: (Girls/education)Policies such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue a career in non-traditional areas. The National Curriculum has removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects. Also schooling has become meritocentric.
  35. 35Role models (Girls)The increase in female teachers shows that women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non-traditional goals to aim for.
  36. 36Teacher attention (Girls/education)Teachers paid more attention to boys as they are attract reprimands. This may explain why teachers have more positive attitudes to girls, whom they see as cooperative, than to boys, whom are seen as disruptive. This may lead to self-fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promote girls self-esteem and raise the achievement levels.
  37. 37Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum: (Girls/education)Sexist images have been removed from learning materials. This may help raise girl’s success levels- more positive images of what women can do. (Weiner 1995)
  38. 38EVAL POINT (Best 1993 and Abraham 1996): (education/girls)EVAL POINT:
    However Best (1993) and Abraham (1996) found that women tend to presented as passive, and doing domestic chores while men are shown to be active: running a business, investing etc.
  39. 39How have GCSES helped girls according to Pirie?GCSE’s and coursework:
    Pirie (2001) argues that O levels were boys exams with ‘high risk, swot it all up for the final through’ approach to assessment. By contrast, girls are more successful in coursework as they are more conscientious and better organised.
    Sociologists argue that these characteristics and skills are the result of early gender socialisation. E.g. girls are likely to be encouraged to be neat, tidy and patient. This puts girls in a better place as they achieve greater success.
  40. 40On the other hand Elwood argues that... (Girls/education)EVAL POINT:
    Elwood- changing GCSE format not the only cause of the gender gap!!!
  41. 41How do feminists see the educational system? (Girls and education)Feminists:
    Liberal- See that further progress will be made by the continuing developments of equal opportunities, and see education is a meritocracy.
    Radical- System still remains patriarchal. E.g. sexual harassment continues, education still limits their subject choice and career options, females are less likely to become head-teachers.
  42. 42Feminisation of schools (Boys/education)Schools do not nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership. Also coursework has created differences in educational achievement.
  43. 43Shortage of male primary school teachers: (Boys/education)Strong positive male role models both at home and at school cause may cause under-achievement. 16% of men are primary school teachers. 42% said they made them work harder. Yet, Myhill and Jones found they felt male teachers treated boys harshly.
  44. 44Laddish subculture (boys/education)WC boys are more likely to be labelled as sissies and subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they appeared to be ‘swots’. Boys were more concerned to be labelled by peers than girls, as it is a threat to their masculinity. Thus, WC boys rejected schoolwork to avoid being called ‘gay’.
    Epstein- ‘real boys don’t work’ if they do, they get bullied.
    Hargreaves (1967) and Willis (1977) found that boys were
    either fatalistic in accepting school failure as inevitable
    and so developed anti-school coping strategies or sought
    to compensate for this status frustration by gaining
    credibility in the eyes of their peers. However, studies
    suggest that ‘laddish’ behaviours have spread to most boys
    -both working-class and middle-class - and to some extent
    to girls.
  45. 45(Mac an Ghaill 1994) Globalization and decline of traditional men’s jobs: (boys/education)Globalisation and decline of traditional men’s jobs:
    Since the 1980’s there has been a decline in heavy industries (mining). This is partly due to globalisation of the economy, which has led to the manufacturing industry moving to countries of cheap labour, like China. Also, this has led to an ‘identity crisis for men’. Many boys believe they have little prospect of getting a proper job, and give up on qualifications. However, these jobs were WC jobs, and didn’t require many qualifications. So the loss of these jobs hasn’t affected their motivations to get qualifications. (Mac an Ghaill 1994)
  46. 46Boys and literacyBoys and literacy:
    Parents spend less time reading to their sons. Also mothers do most of the reading, so its may be seen as a feminine activity. Boy’s leisure pursuits, such as football and computer games, do little to help develop their language and communication.
  47. 47National curriculum (subject choice)National Curriculum-
    reduced pupils’ freedom to choose or drop subjects, by making it compulsory. Where there is a choice, girls and boys choose differently. Design and technology is a compulsory subject, but girls tend to do food technology, and boys tend to do graphics.
  48. 48AS and A levelsAS and A levels
    Gendered subject choices became more noticeable. Boys tend to do maths and physics, whereas girls did sociology, English and foreign languages.
  49. 49Vocational choicesVocational choices
    Girls tend to go for health, public service and care. Boys tend to go for construction, planning and the built environment.
  50. 50sexSex- inborn physical differences between males and females.
  51. 51GenderGender- learned cultural differences between male and females. Gender role socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males and females in society.
  52. 52Early socialization - HOME:Home: boys tend to read hobby books and information texts; girls tend to read stories about people. This may explain why boys and girls pick differently.
  53. 53Early socialization - SCHOOLS:Schools: encourage boys to be tough and show initiative, and girls to be quiet and helpful.
  54. 54Early socialization - PARENTS:Parents: reward boys for being active, and girls for being passive.
  55. 552) Gendered subject images:The gender image that a subject ‘gives off’ affects who will want to choose it.
    For example, science teachers are more likely to be men, examples that they use draw on boy’s interests and experiences, and boys tend to dominate the laboratory.
  56. 563) Peer pressure: (subject choice)Boys tend to opt out of music and dance as such activities fall outside their gender domain, and are likely to attract a negative response from peers.
    Girls tend to opt out of sport as they may be called ‘lesbian’ or ‘butch’ if they were seen more interested in sport than boys.
    However, in single-sex schools, the absence of boys mean there is less pressure on girls to conform to restrictive stereotypes of what subjects they can or cannot study
  57. 57What is a pupil subculture?-A group of pupils who share similar values and behaviour patterns. They emerge as a response to the way pupils have been labelled (reaction to streaming).
  58. 58Lacey (Pupil subcultures)-Lacey: Differentiation- process of teachers categorising pupils according to their ability/attitude/behaviour. Polarisation- process in which pupils respond to streaming by moving towards one of the two opposite extremes. Pro-school subculture- placed in higher streams, remain committed to the values of school and gain status through academic success. Anti-school subculture- placed in lower streams, have inferior status.
  59. 59Hargreaves (Pupil subcultures)Hargreaves: There are two distinctive subcultures: Conformists and Non-conformists delinquents (a delinquent subculture that helped guarantee their educational failure).
  60. 60Woods (pupil subcultures)-Woods: argues that rather than seeing pupil subcultures as either conformist or deviant, it is more realistic to see a variety of possible adaptations/responses to the schooling process. Pro-school: Ingratiation (pupils who try to earn the favour of teachers), Opportunism (those who vary between teacher and peer approval), Compliance (pupils who conform for instrumental reasons), Ritualism (pupils who go through the motions), Colonisation (pupils who avoid trouble, but will deviate if there is less punishment). Anti-school: Ritualism, Retreatism (not opposed to school values, but not concerned about achieving success), Colonisation, Intransigence (deviate and aren’t bothered about the consequences), Rebellion (pupils have little regard to school values and reject school teachings).
  61. 61Ball (pupil subcultures)-Ball: found that when the school abolished banding, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely removed and the influence of the anti-school subculture declined. However, differentiation continued. As a result, class inequalities can continue due to teachers labelling.
  62. 62What criticisms of pupil subculture theorists are there?-Limitations: Deterministic: assumes that once pupils are labelled, they have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy and will inevitably fail. Ignores wider structures of power: blames teachers for labelling pupils but fails to explain why.
  63. 63-Tripartite System (Goverment policies)--Tripartite System: 1944 Education Act brought in the tripartite system. This involved selecting and allocating children to three different schools according to their ability (identified by the 11+ exam). 1) Grammar schools: academic curriculum and access to 1944 Education Act brought in the tripartite system. This involved selecting and allocating children to three different schools according to their ability (identified by the 11+ exam). 1) Grammar schools: academic curriculum and access to non-manual jobs and higher education (was for those who pass the 11+ mainly MC). 2) Secondary modern schools: non-academic ‘practical’ curriculum and access to manual work for pupils who failed the 11+ (mainly WC). 3) Technical schools but only existed in a few areas. This system produced class inequality by putting two classes in different schools that offered unequal opportunities. Also gender inequality; girls needed higher marks than boys. The tripartite system legitimated inequality through the ideology that ability is inborn rather than a product of the child’s upbringing and environment.
  64. 64Comprehensive System: (policy)Comprehensive System: Introduced in 1965 which aimed to overcome the class divide of the tripartite system and make education more meritocratic. The 11+, grammars and secondary moderns were abolished and replaced by comprehensive schools. However, it continued to reproduce class inequality: streaming- MC placed in higher streams and WC placed in lower streams. Labelling- teachers may continue to label WC pupils negatively and restrict their opportunities. Comprehensives also legitimated inequality through the ‘myth of meritocracy’. All pupils went to the same school which made it appear they had equal opportunities regardless of class background
  65. 65Marketisation and Parentocracy: (policy)Marketisation and Parentocracy: In 1988 Education Reform Act established marketisation in education. David describes this phase as a ‘parentocracy’. This is because supporters of marketisation argue that in an education market, power shifts away from producers (teachers and schools) to consumers (parents). They claim that this encourages diversity among schools and gives parents more choice, meets the needs of different pupils and raises standards. Policies that promote marketisation: exam league tables, funding formula, open enrolment.
  66. 66-Myth of Parentocracy:-Myth of Parentocracy: Not only does marketisation reproduce inequality (exam league tables- recruiting higher achievers MC, funding formula- cream skimming and silt shifting); it also legitimates it by concealing its true causes. Ball- it is a myth not reality. It makes it appear that all parents have the same freedom to choose which school to send their children to. Gewirtz shows MC parents have more economic and cultural capital. This myth makes inequality in education to be fair and inevitable.
  67. 67Reducing inequality: (social policy/new labour)Reducing inequality: Education Action Zones (located in deprived areas providing them with additional resources), Aim Higher (raise aspirations groups who are under-represented in higher education), Education Maintenance Allowance-EMA (payments to low-income students to encourage them to stay on after 16), raising the school leaving age (so there isn’t any 16-17 ‘Neets’).
  68. 68Promoting diversity and choice: (New labour/social policy)Promoting diversity and choice: secondary schools were encouraged to apply for specialist school status in particular curriculum areas. By 2007, 85% of all secondary schools had become specialist schools. It is argued that this offers parents a greater choice and raises standards of achievement by enabling schools to build on their strengths. Results in specialist schools have outstripped those in non-specialist. However, it is unclear if it has reduced inequality between social groups. Labour has also promoted academies as a policy for raising achievement. However, results have been mixed in some academies results have improved, whereas others have worsened.
  69. 69Criticisms of new labour policys-Criticisms: EMAs may encourage WC students to stay on until they are 18, tuition fees for higher education may deter them from going to university. Whitty also argues that Labour’s anti-inequality policies are ‘cosmetic’-they present a positive image without actually reducing class inequality.
  70. 70Class (New labour policys)Class: Comprehensivisation- replaces schools with comprehensive schools, which aimed to educate all students, regardless of background or aptitudes. (Reinforces): Butler Act 1944- created the tripartite system as it consisted of three different schools catering for different aptitudes. Education Reform Act 1988- Attempt to marketise education. Parents were given choice over where to send their children, and schools were encouraged to compete for their ‘custom’.
  71. 71Gender (new labour policys)Gender: Raising Boys Achievement- involves a range of teaching strategies, including single-sex teaching. National Literacy Strategy- Focuses on improving boys reading. The Reading Champions- uses male role models celebrating their own reading interests. Playing for Success- uses football and other sports to boost learning skills and motivation among boys.
  72. 72Ethnicity (New labour)Ethnicity: Aim High- raises the aspirations of groups who are under-represented in HE. Forster Act 1870- created elementary schools where no church school existed. This ensued that all could access some free education till the age of 10. Multicultural education- promotes the achievements of children from minority ethnic groups by valuing all cultures in the schools curriculum (raises self-esteem). Race Relations Act- legal duty schools to promote racial equality.
  73. 73Practical issuesPractical Issues:
    -Time and Money: Different methods require different amounts of time and money and may influence the sociologist’s choice. Also researcher’s access to resources can determine which methods to use.
    -Requirements of Funding Bodies: Research institutes, businesses and other organisations that provide the funding for the research may require the results to be in a particular form.
    -Personal Skills and Characteristics: Each sociologist has different skills that may affect their ability to use different methods. E.g. participant observations require someone that mixes easily with others.
    -Subject Matter: It may be hard to study a particular group or subject by one method than by another. E.g. written questionnaires may be useless for studying those who cannot read.
    -Research Opportunity: The opportunity to carry out research may be unexpected so it may not be possible to use structured methods like questionnaires that take longer to prepare.
  74. 74Ethical issuesEthical Issues:
    -Informed Consent: The participants should be offered the right to refuse, and should be told about the relevant aspects of what the research entails before they make a fully informed decision. Consent should be obtained before the study, and if lengthy, at intervals throughout the study.
    -Confidentiality and Privacy: Identity of the participants should be kept confidential in order to prevent possible negative effects on them. The researchers should also respect the privacy of the participants.
    -Effects on Research Participants: Researchers should be aware of the possible effects of their work on those they study. E.g. police intervention, harm to employment prospects, social exclusion and psychological harm.
    -Vulnerable Groups: Special care should be taken for those who are young, have disability or physical or mental health.
    -Covert Research: When the researcher’s identity and research purpose is hidden from the people being studied. This can cause major ethical issues like lying/deceiving.
  75. 75Theoritical issuesTheoretical Issues:
    -Validity and Reliability: A valid method produces a true picture of what something is really like. Many sociologists argue qualitative methods give us more valid or truthful evidence, as it gives deeper insights through first hand experience. A reliable method is one which can be repeated by another researcher and produce the same results.
    -Representativeness: Refers to whether or not the people studied are atypical of the target population.
    -Methodological Perspective: The sociologist’s view of what society is like and how we should study it. Positivism: prefer quantitative data, seek to discover patterns of behaviour, see sociology as a science. Interpretivists: prefer qualitative data, seek to understand social actors’ meanings and don’t see sociology as a science. Functionalists and Marxists take a positivist approach; they see society as a large-scale structure that shapes our behaviour. In contrast, Interactionists favour an interpretivist approach; they take a micro-level of society focusing on face-to-face interactions.
  76. 76Theoretical Perspective: (Choice of topic)Theoretical Perspective: The sociologist’s theoretical perspective is a major influence upon their choice of research topic. E.g. a feminist is more likely to choose to study domestic violence.
  77. 77Soicetys values (choice of topic)Society’s Values: As society’s values change so does the focus of research.
  78. 78Funding bodies (choice of topics)Funding Bodies: Most research requires funding from an external body. E.g. government agencies, businesses etc. As the funding body is paying for the research, it will determine the topic to be investigated.
  79. 79Practical Factors: (choice of topic)The inaccessibility of certain situations to the researcher may restrict what topic they are able to study.

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